Rubber bracelets

Fundamentals of research activities lectures. The course of lectures on the discipline "Basics of Research". Organization of scientific research

Scientific research - This is the process of obtaining new scientific knowledge, one of the types of cognitive activity. Scientific research may be applied to achieve specific private purposes, and may have a fundamental nature that means the production of new knowledge regardless of direct application prospects.

The methods of scientific knowledge are classified according to the degree of their community, latitude of applicability in the course of scientific research. Eliminate publicly philosophical, general scientific and private methods.

General philosophical methods are universal. They act in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge. In the history of knowledge, two general philosophical methods are known: dialectical and metaphysical. Since the XIX century, the metaphysical method is increasingly displaced from natural science by a dialectical method. General philosophical methods are not strictly fixed, it is a system of principles, operations, techniques wearing universal. That is why general philosophical methods are not described by strict terms of logic and experiment, are not amenable to formalization and mathematization. These methods set the basic strategy, but do not define the final result.

General scientific methods Used in various fields of science and have an interdisciplinary application. General scientific methods are the source and foundation of any discipline. Their classification is associated with the concept of levels of scientific knowledge. Some general scientific methods are applied only on the empirical level of knowledge (observation, experiment, measurement), others are used only on theoretical level of knowledge (idealization, formalization), some (modeling) - both on empirical and theoretical levels. General scientific methods characterize the process of knowledge in all sciences. Based on general scientific concepts (information, model, structure, function, system, element, optimality, probability, etc.), the corresponding methods and principles of cognition that provide communication and interaction of philosophical knowledge with special scientific knowledge and its methods are formulated. The system, probabilistic, structural and functional, cybernetic and others can be attributed to the number of general scientific principles and approaches. Synergetics - interdisciplinary theory of self-organization and development of open systems of various nature (biological, social, cognitive) received special development.

Promotional methods Used only within any particular science. Each private science has its own specific research methods, which are closely related to general philosophical and general scientific methods. For example, in private scientific methods, observations, measurements, idealization, etc. may be present.

In the classifier of the directions and specialties of higher professional education with a list of master's programs (specializations) in the direction of education, allocated:

1) natural sciences and mathematics (mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.);

2) humanitarian and socio-economic sciences (cultural studies, theology, philology, philosophy, linguistics, journalism, statistics, art, etc.);

3) technical science (construction, telecommunications, metallurgy, electronics and microelectronics, biotechnical systems and technologies, radio engineering, architecture, etc.);

4) agricultural sciences (agronomy, zootechnics, veterinary medicine, agrogenineering, forest affairs, fishing, etc.).

Research work is an important stage in the preparation of masters to solve professional tasks in the field of research activities, as well as under work on the final qualification work (master's dissertation).

As a result of research work, masters must have the ability to:

Independently carry out the formulation of the problem of research, the formation of a study plan, a choice of research methods and processing results;

Perform modeling objects and processes to analyze and optimize their parameters using existing research tools, including standard application packages;

Conduct reviews and reports on the results of the research results, develop recommendations on the practical use of the results obtained.

1 . Organization of scientific research in the Russian Federation

1.1. Structure of scientific institutions Russian Federation

In the Russian Federation, scientific research leads the following organizations:

1. Research Institutes, Academy of Sciences of Russia, sectoral academies, etc.;

2. Research institutes subordinated to sectoral ministries;

3. Higher educational institutions.

Scientific research and development also produce in design and design and technological institutions, laboratories, bureaus, experienced stations. Among organizations working on the general problem, head research organizations that carry out private coordination of scientific research, control the fulfillment of the tasks of other scientific institutions.

The highest scientific institution is The Russian Academy of Sciences. It carries out general leadership of research on major problems, and in relation to the subordinate academic institutions as a management body acts. Academic institutions conduct fundamental studies in their profile and prepare recommendations on the use of the results of such studies in industry and economy. They also participate in the introduction of these results. In addition to the implementation of research and implementation of these studies, academic institutions are engaged in the preparation of scientific personnel.

Research OrganizationsIncluded in the industry ministries, mainly applied research.

Higher educational institutions - Universities, Polytechnic and Specialized Institutes are conducting greater research work. About half of scientists who have a degree, work in universities. An important advantage of universities in the implementation of scientific work is the presence of a complex of specialists in various directions of science, which allows major scientific research at the joints of the disciplines. In addition to the Department, leading training and scientific work, research institutes, problematic and sectoral laboratories, etc. work with universities. Scientific works in universities are headed by the research sector or department. Universities fulfill state (budget) and indentationary research work, in which students take part.

Preparation of scientific and scientific and pedagogical personnel in Russia

In the Federal Law "On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education", it is said that the preparation of scientific and pedagogical workers is carried out in graduate school and doctoral studies of universities, scientific institutions or organizations, as well as by attachment to the specified institutions or organizations of applicants for the preparation and protection of dissertations for the degree of scientific Candidate of Sciences or Doctor of Sciences or by transferring pedagogical workers to the posts of scientists for the preparation of dissertations for a scientific degree of Doctor of Science.

However, at present, the preparation of scientific and pedagogical personnel is carried out in the magistracy, since it is in the provision on master's training (magistracy) in a multi-level system higher education Of the Russian Federation, the training of masters is focused on research and scientific and pedagogical activities (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1. Stages of preparation of scientific personnel

The graduate school of universities, scientific institutions or organizations on a competitive basis are accepted by persons having a higher vocational education.

According to the provision on the preparation of scientific and pedagogical and scientific personnel in the system of postgraduate vocational education in the Russian Federation, entering the graduate school to take competitive entrance exams on special discipline, philosophy, a foreign language, a defined university or a scientific organization and the necessary graduate student to fulfill the dissertation research. Persons in full or partially candidian examsWhen entering postgraduate studies are exempt from relevant entrance exams. The Reception Commission on the results of entrance exams makes a decision for each contender, ensuring enrollment on a competitive basis of persons most prepared for scientific and pedagogical work. Enrollment to graduate school is carried out by order of the head of the university (scientific institution, organization). During the training, the graduate student is obliged to: fully implement an individual plan; Suppose candidate exams on philosophy, foreign language and special discipline; Complete the work on the dissertation and submit it to the department (in the Council, Department, Laboratory, Sector).

The research part of the Master's Preparation Program should:

Comply with the main problem of the scientific specialty, on which the master's dissertation is defended;

Have relevance, scientific novelty, practical significance;

Use modern theoretical, methodological and technological achievements of domestic and foreign science and practice;

Use the modern methodology of scientific research;

Use modern methods of processing and interpreting the source data using computer technologies;

Scientific discoveries, new theoretical knowledge, based on the needs of their commercialization, are transferred to the phase of applied research, including the stages of search research and research work. This is preceded by strategic solutions to special generation, thanks to which the newest generation of innovative processes is developing. Somewhere in the median stage of R & D is the Water-Building line between scientific thought and market and public needs. Innovation also provides a shift of embodied scientific knowledge to the right, during which the NIR project is transformed into an investment and innovative project.

History of development of scientific activities

Any type of human activity is associated with the implementation of the productive or reproductive function. The productive function is implemented through activities that have a goal to obtain a subjectively perceived or objectively evaluated new result. Examples include an innovative project, invention, scientific discovery, etc. The reproductive function is associated with the reproduction of a person, copying his own activity or activities of other people. Examples of this type can be: the function of continuing the genus, the performance of production operations, business processes and socio-social processes.

Research activities (NID) productive in its essence and also has features of the design and organized system. Therefore, it is characterized by all significant signs of the organization and inherent in a certain methodology and the implementation technique. Taking into account this, the model of the two-component structure of the NID, presented below, is proposed. Due to the design type of the NID device, it, as any project, passes through the following phases.

Design. The result is a scientific hypothesis, a model of a new knowledge system, work plan.
Research work in order to check the scientific hypothesis nominated.
Summing up and rethinking the results obtained to build the following hypotheses and their checks during the production of new design tasks.

(Click to enlarge)

The current state of culture and the level of development of NID arose not in an empty place, he was preceded by a long genesis of scientific creativity. Science arose along with other forms of perception, understanding reality and even much later. This is a religious view of peace, art, aesthetics, ethics and philosophy. It can be assumed that in the history of humanity, science originated about 5 thousand years ago. Sumer Ancient Egypt, China, India - these are the civilizations where it has been formed and began to gradually develop, if you can put it, protonal. The great names of the titans of thought reached contemporaries and personify with the major milestones of this thorny path, among them:

ancient Greek thinkers Aristotle, Democritus, Euclidean, Archimedes, Ptolemy;
scientists of the early Middle Ages of Persia and Asia Biruni, Ibn Sina and others;
skolasti Middle Ages Europe Eriugen, Thomas Akvinsky, Bonaventure, etc.;
alchemists and astrology of a later era of the Great Inquisition period.

Since the XII century, universities began to occur as scientific and educational centers, known so far, in such European cities, like Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, Naples. Closer to the revival of the Renaissance, in the period of the late Renaissance, in Italy and England, the genius appeared, raised the "banner of scientific fishery" to a new height. Bright "diamonds" spoke on Science Olympus: Galileo Galilee, Isaac Newton and others. The change of feudal system is bourgeois led to the unprecedented development of science. In Russia, the same processes walked their guys, and the names of Russian science figures are deservedly inscribed in the world chronicle:

Mikhail Lomonosov;
Nikolay Lobachevsky;
Pafnuti Chebyshev;
Sophia Kovalevskaya;
Alexander Tzetov;
Dmitry Mendeleev.

From the middle of the XIX century, the exponential growth of science and its role in the public apparatus began. In the XX century, one scientific breakthrough began to replace the other, from the 50s, the HTR began. Currently, during the transition of world civilization on the 6th technological way, it is customary to talk about the symbiosis of science and business expressing in a ripe innovative type of development of the economy of Western states and some countries of the 3rd world, although in fact there are no significant more than 25 years.

The essence of the concept of NIR

Research activities are divided into three large sequentially and parallel blocks: Fundamental studies, applied research and development. The goal of fundamental research is to open, study new laws, nature phenomena, expanding the scientific knowledge and establishing its suitability in practice. These results after theoretical consolidation are based on applied research, which are aimed at finding ways to use laws, finding and improving methods and means of human activity. In turn, applied scientific surveys are divided into the following types of research and works:

search;
research;
experimental design.

The objectives and objectives of research work (NIR) are concrete results expressed in the creation of new experienced installations, samples of equipment, devices, fundamentally new technologies. The central source of R & D is the formulated problem. The problem is understood as a contradiction (uncertainty), which is established in the process of knowing one or another phenomenon. The elimination of this contradiction or uncertainty is not possible from the position of the existing knowledge. Based on the scientific method and from the point of view of a dialectical approach in philosophy, the problem is formed as a contradiction arising within the whole.

Taking into account the orientation of the NIR, several types of problems serve as one of the grounds for the classification of types of research works can be distinguished.

The scientific problem is a contradiction between knowledge about the needs of society and ignorance of ways and their means of satisfaction.
Social problem is an established contradiction in the development of public relations and individual elements of the social system.
The technological problem is a contradiction (uncertainty) arising when creating technologies that cannot be eliminated on the basis of the current technological concept.

By analogy with the above problems, it is enough to simply formulate the concept of management and market problems, which, together with the technological problem and a number of social acquisitions, permits innovative activities. Innovative inventions serve as eliminating such problems, and the first stage of the innovation process is the NIR. The basic regulatory document determining the essential characteristics of the NIR and their content, the requirements for the organization, the sequence of execution, the accompanying document flow and reporting, is GOST 15.101-98. An extract from this standard with the basic concepts of the Nir is shown below.

Extract from GOST 15.101-98, entered into force 01.07.2000

The key document for the launch of research works is the TK on the NIR and, if the customer is present, the contract for the performance of work concluded between the customer and the Contractor. The "General Provisions" section of the Standard describes which requirements should be included in the technical task on the NIR in obligatory. Document "Technical Opess" or the appropriate application to the contract is prepared on the basis of the following information elements:

description of the object of research and requirements for it;
functional composition of general technical nature in relation to objects of research;
a list of theories, patterns, physical and other effects that make it possible to formulate the principle of the subject of the research;
alleged technical solutions;
information on the resource components of the NIR (the potential of the contractor, the required production, material and financial resources);
marketing and market information;
expected economic effect.

Methodological aspects of NIR

Before we proceed to the analysis of the structure of research work, once again we will return to the issue of the classification of the NIR. Classification features include:

the nature of communication with production;
importance for the economy of the country;
sources of financing;
type of contractor Nir;
level of problem with related types of scientific management units;
the degree of inclusion in the innovation process.

(Click to enlarge)

Although the Nir innovation is not as often applied in fundamental studies, nevertheless, this practice also gets distribution, including in large corporate scientific centers of the Russian Federation. Take, for example, pharmaceutical, the automotive industry, which is actively going along the way of creating unmanned crews and electric vehicles capable of competing with DVS, etc. Let us turn to the consideration of the sequence of research activities and denote the main stages of the NIR. They differ in composition from the stages of the NIR process and consist of eight stages of research work.

Formulation of the problem, themes, objectives and objectives of the Nir.
Study of literary sources, research, preparation for technical design.
Conducting technical design work in several versions.
Development and TEO of the project.
Perform work design.
Creating a prototype with subsequent production tests.
Refinement of an experienced sample.
Tests with the participation of the State Acceptance Commission.

In turn, the NIR process consists of six typical stages.

Clarification of the problem, choosing the direction of the Nir, formulating its topic. The beginning of the work on planning research work, the compilation of TK, preliminary calculations of economic efficiency.
Formulation, setting the goals and objectives of the R & D on the basis of selected literature, bibliography, patent surveys, annotations and referencing sources, analyzing the information received. At this stage, the technical task on the NIR is finally coordinated and approved.
The theoretical studies stage, during which the essence of the phenomenon under consideration is studied, hypotheses are formed, models are created, their mathematical justification and analysis.
Experimental studies having their own structure of methodological development, planning and execution. The direct conduct of the experimental series is completed by issuing a conclusion on the basis of the processing of experimental research results.
Analysis and registration of the results of the R & D, compile a report on research work. Analysis is involved: the technical task on the NIR, the theoretical conclusions obtained, the models, the results of experiments. Hypotheses receive confirmation or refutation, formulate scientific conclusions as the most important aspect of the report on the NIR, the theory is developing.
The stage of introducing the results of the NIR into production, the formation of prerequisites for the commercialization of the established innovation, the transition of an innovative project in the STADA.

Stage of experimental studies

Theoretical stage of the NIR is a separate subject area with its special specificity. And it is obvious that formulated theoretical conclusions must be confirmed by an experiment that is one of the key parts of the scientific research. Under it is a set of actions aimed at creating the necessary conditions that allow reproducing the phenomenon in the cleanest undistressed form. The purpose of the experiment is to verify the hypotheses under consideration, checking the properties of the object objects, checking the conclusions of the theory.

The methodology of experimental studies is determined by the appointment of this stage of the NIR and the type of experiment used. Experiments differ in numerous signs: goals, ways to form the conditions of implementation, the types of organization. To the grounds for their classification, it is also possible to include the nature of the external influences on the study object, the type of model under investigation in the experiment, the number of varying factors, etc. Among the specific species of experimental studies are allocated as follows.

Natural and artificial types of experiments.
Stating experiment.
Search experiment.
Controlling experiment.
Decisive experiment.
Laboratory and nutritional types of experiments.
Mind, information and real types of experiments.
Technological and computational experiments.

Each of the above species applies appropriate experimental methods. But whatever method is chosen, due to the uniqueness of each such work in any case, it is necessary to specify or even re-develop the methodology for its implementation. It must be provided:

resources for preliminary observation of the studied object;
selection of objects for the experiment with the exception of the impact of random factors;
ensuring systematic observation of the development of the process or phenomenon;
selection of measurement limits;
systematic registration of measurements;
creation of complicating experiment situations;
creating conditions for the transition from empirical experience to analyzing, logical generalizations and synthesis in confirmation or refutation of theoretical assumptions.

At this stage of Nir, among the works performed, the following stages of the experimental study are allocated.

Formulation of the purpose and tasks of the experiment.
The choice of the experimental area, variable factors, a mathematical model of data representation.
Planning of experimental events (development of the methodology for conducting, substantiation of work, the number of experiments, etc.).
Description of the experiment and organizing it (preparation of models, samples, equipment, measuring instruments, etc.).
Actually conducting an experiment.
Verification of static prerequisites for obtaining correct data and primary results processing.
Analysis of the results and comparison with the hypotheses of the theoretical stage.
Preliminary conclusions and adjustment of theoretical generalizations.
Appointment and conducting additional experiments.
Formulating final conclusions and recommendations on the use of information received.

We complete this article on the basics of research work - the first stage of a fully deployed innovative project. The modern project manager is it time to turn the "Terra Incognita" Nir into a completely understandable and clear process. This is due to the fact that such an inevitable world trend. And although not every company is able to afford its own science, but to represent how the scientific product arises, the business and its representatives becomes more and more important.

Vladimir Schweizer

Changing Europe, with all the similarities facing it, is not homogeneous, deprived of any country specificity by the body. Here, as before, there are state leaders, there are the countries of the "second line" that have a certain impact on the course of European and world events. There are also such that for various reasons yet can not yet tell their goodwag in the section Solving the economic, political and social problems of modernity.

In this situation, natural for the transition period from the old two-speed Europe to Europe, seeking to create a single market space and democratic power structures, the territorial value of states is increasingly important, the population of each of them. A much time aimed factor is the degree of integration of the relevant country into the pan-European economic, political and social space, the ability to find a "national niche" in the enlightened system of international relations.

The concepts of "BBS" and "small" European countries will explore the European continent's states within the categories of their differentiation on the size of the territory they occupied and the number of people living. True, the question immediately arises: there is a clear generally accepted criteria for digital indicators for which it is possible to determine which state is "large", and what is the "small" state? ...

Topic 1. Understanding on science4

Topic 2. Methodology Scientific Cognition11

Topic 3. Scientific research in

Methodological understanding24.

Subject 4.Metry to ensure scientific

Studies37.

Topic 5. Features of methodical support

Educational and educational work47

Topic 6. Logic Basics of Evidence

(Argument) 54

Introduction

Didactic principle of unity of educational and scientific work in the highest

educational institutions mean that in the process of training

teachers need to teach students not only well

carry out practical processes of their future activities, but

realize its disadvantages, conduct scientific research and root them

Training of students of research work is conducted on two

directions: in the process of scientific and educational work (when students write

student scientific community in free time

(Preparation of reports on scientific conferences, writing articles, etc.).

In the modern methodology of scientific research two

knowledge of knowledge: subjects associated with professional practical

work and regulatory-regulatory (methodological) aimed at

scientific knowledge of subjective-practical activity.

the main theoretical, methodological and organizational knowledge of

conducting scientific and educational works, scientific research and registration of them

results in accordance with generally accepted standards. Training program

provides for the acquaintance of students with the specifics of scientific knowledge,

principles and methods of scientific research, as well as a technique

- Specific science, its goals, functions, results, types of scientific

studies;

-Sacons, the principles of knowledge, overall, general scientific and

special research methods;

-Nual techniques for choosing an urgent topic for research and

ways to draw up a program;

-Algorithm searches for information in document sources

information and in electronic information resources;

-Methods of work with text;

-Methodificee preparation and design of academic work.

- offer a scientific research program;

- analyze scientific literature on the topic of research;

-Forming quotes and other extracts from the text of the scientific literature;

-Click on facts and issue bibliographic links to

information sources.

Topic 1. General view of science

4. What are the forms of knowledge and types of scientific research?

The goal is to form an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is science, her

specificity; or, functions, result, levels of scientific knowledge, form

sensual and rational knowledge, types of research

1. What are the definitions of the concept of "science"?

In scientific literature there are various definitions of the concept

the science. Most of the modern scientists consider it in three

iPOSTES: as a specific sphere (view) of human activity;

social institution; The aggregate (system) of scientific knowledge. However

the definition of the concept of science proceed from the first and third entities.

For example, the Belarusian philosopher and methodologist V.K. Lukashevich writes that

production and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge of

natural, social and spiritual reality "(1, p. 15). Second

the definition of science as a totality of scientific knowledge sounds so "Science as

information about natural, social and spiritual reality "(1, p. 15).

The whole set of cognitive actions of people accepted

divide into two groups: 1) activities that are carried out in

framework for specific types of human activities (subject-practical,

communicative, value-indicative) and 2) activities that

under science as a special type of human activity,

aimed at the production of new knowledge of the surrounding reality.

Therefore, there is a knowledge gained out of science, which

produced when creating certain products, warehouses,

artistic images, etc. and scientific knowledge as a system in which

scientific information (knowledge) is subject to the overall structure. As a system

science performs in the following forms: 1) in the form of public consciousness

or awareness; 2) in the form of social practice, including theory,

methodology, personnel potential, information support of scientific

institutions.

"Methodology of scientific research" (MN., 2002) emphasizes

represents not just the sum of any knowledge of the real world, and

system of reliably formed and proven provisions on phenomena

formulated by means of special concepts, judgments, conclusions,

curious people, and the result of the activity of all mankind, it is subordinate

goals for the development of social practice. Scientific knowledge, we emphasize

theoretical systematization of knowledge of nature, society, man,

sciences: Natural, Social (or Public), Humanitarian and

technical science.

Science originated, therefore, in response to public

knowledge needs, but its further development continued not

only under the influence of socio-economic factors, but also under

the impact of internal determinants (patterns, ideas, etc.).

Therefore, among scientists there were and still have two points of view:

called the internet approach), others defend the situation that

science is developing under the influence of external socio-economic

factors (so called externalist approach). Apparently more correct

the conclusion came up with the well-known Russian methodologist of science G.I. Ruzavin

2. What is the specificity scientific activity?

Now consider the second question of our topic - the specificity of scientific

activities (knowledge).

Scientific knowledge as a specific organized aggregate

cognitive actions has a number of features that distinguish

its from other types of human activity. Scientists-Methodologists are usually

severe six such features:

1. Science ideally aims to produce new knowledge;

2. The basis of scientific knowledge is the clear allocation of its subject as

a holistic set of interrelated characteristics of the object;

3. Scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized

tools (methods, trial objects (devices) experimental

installations, etc.);

4. Scientific knowledge is regulated by certain types of regulatory

knowledge (laws, principles, ideals, norms, the style of scientific

thinking, etc.);

5. The results of scientific knowledge are recorded in special forms of knowledge and

must comply with a number of requirements (reproducibility,

validity, systematic, objectivity, controls);

6. The essential difference of scientific knowledge is

specialized (scientific) language.

As part of the reflection of the organization of scientific knowledge not lost

his values \u200b\u200bAristotelian model of research process,

which includes the following steps: the first one includes

presentation of the state of the topic studied (problems) and critical analysis

preceding points of view, approaches, solutions; The second stage includes

accurate wording of the topic under study (problem); The third stage is associated with

selection (wording) of its own solution to the problem; fourth

the stage provides for the rationale (argument) with the help of various

kind of facts and judgments (practical, scientific) and logical

evidence as well as the advantage of the proposed solution in comparison

with previous.

aimed at creating and theoretical systematization of knowledge about

nature, society, man and production facilities created by him.

Therefore, the following large complexes of science have developed in society:

natural sciences, public or social, humanitarian,

technical.

3. What are the goals, functions and results of science?

Objectives of science - to know, explain and predict development in the future

phenomena of nature, society, man, technology.

In accordance with the main objectives of science, three main

its functions as areas of activity: Gnoseological (Gnoses - Knowledge,

logo - doctrine), heuristic (search for truth) and prognostic

(Predictive) - forecast for future development. Science as social

the institute, in addition, performs the following functions: ideological

(promoting the education of scientific worldview), social strength (or

promoting socialization of personality), productive force (assistance

scientific and technical progress).

The result of science is scientific knowledge (it means there are other

work confirmed by social and historical practice and not

contradicts (certified) logic and adequately reflected in

human consciousness in the form of ideas, judgments, theories. Knowledge

have varying degrees of reliability, reflecting dialectics

relative and absolute truth. Knowledge can be donatic,

everyday, artistic (as a specific method of aesthetic

development of reality) and scientific (empirical and theoretical).

Everyday knowledge is based on common sense and ordinary consciousness,

are an important estimated basis for everyday behavior

man. These knowledge forms are developing and enriched as progress

scientific knowledge. At the same time, scientific knowledge themselves absorb

everyday knowledge.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by reflection of facts in the system

the concepts of this science are included in the theory forming high

level of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge, being a generalization of reliable

facts, for a random finds the necessary and natural, per unit and

Thinking of a person is constantly moving from ignorance to knowledge, from

superficial to increasingly deep, essential and comprehensive

knowledge, serving prerequisite Transformation activities

man and humanity.

There is also a concept of "anti-scientific knowledge" - knowledge, main

politics and other fields).

4. What are the forms of knowledge and types of scientific

research?

In science, it is customary to divide the cognitive actions of people into two

forms of knowledge: Sensual knowledge, rational knowledge. Consider

the specifics of each of these forms.

carried out by means of human senses: vision, hearing,

touch, smell and taste. In philosophical literature sometimes sensual

cognition is called the concept of "living contemplation." Sensual knowledge of B.

turn includes four forms that you know already from

psychology (they are there and are called - informative processes), and

it is: feeling, perception, presentation and imagination.

items affecting the senses (visual sensations,

hearing feeling, olfactory feeling, taste,

tactile feeling, i.e. by type of human analyzers).

objective world with their immediate impact at the moment

on the senses. Perception of a more complex form of sensual knowledge

which is characterized by such properties as integrity, object

generalization, contact, meaningfulness, ingenuity.

representation of a person about the past events that are remembered,

contacting people people, etc.

Imagination is a form of sensual knowledge or process.

creating new samples based on previously perceived. Imagination

is a reflection of real reality in new

unusual combinations and connections. Imagination according to the degree of activity

divided into active and passive. Form of manifestation of activity

imagination are dreams. Dreams - a desire spent in time.

carried out by means of mental activity of a person.

The main difference from sensual knowledge is that it is:

1) is based on the explanation of the facts obtained on

empirical level;

2) directed to the reflection of the general properties of knowledgeable

objects, i.e. distraction from their singular properties;

3) the immediate connection of rational knowledge with the language,

for the tongue is the material shell of thought (V.K. Lukashevich).

The main forms of rational knowledge are: the concept

significant signs of the subject. For example, the concept of "library

catalog "- List of bibliographic descriptions of documents available

in the Library Fund or library group, compiled on a certain

plan and disclosure or content of library funds.

denies the connection between the subject or its sign or the relationship between

objects that have a property to express either truth or false.

For example, bibliographic products by sign content

documents divided on the views: w. niversal sectoral

thematic, etc.

one or several judgments output new judgment. For example eP in

each region there is need in information not connected from region

(by common issues development science and practices). IN each region there is,

naturally, the need for information about your region. Two judgments.

Review. Information needs Region have B. his

structure two level: common and regional. It means IP region and

regional IP correlated between themselves as an entire part.

Process rational knowledge regulated laws and

requirements logic but takha e. rules conceptual logical

reasoning, i.e. by the consequences of the parcels in conclusions.

Rational knowledge not exhaust conscribed

processes. It includes in himself and that phenomenon as intuition or

sudden postage ix skeeping result for unconsciousness and

intuition meals "Pocus-structured process, including

as rational so and sensual elements. " Productive function

intuition confirmed big number facts of stories science and

technique. but intuitive obtained knowledge not always including talk in

Kamchatka State Technical University Department of Fish Product Technology V.M. Datsun Basics of Research Work A course of lectures on the discipline "Fundamentals of research work" for students studying in the fields of 655900 "Technology of raw materials and products of animal origin", 655600 "Production of food from vegetable raw materials", 655700 "Special food technology Appointment and catering », 552400" Food technology "of all forms of training Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 2004 1 UDC 001.89 (07) +371.385 BBK 72.4 (2) 73 D21 Reviewer S.N. Maksimova, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Technology of Products from Animal Raw Materials DVGU Datsun V.M. D21 Fundamentals of research work: a course of lectures. - Petropav, Kamchatsky: KamchartGTU, 2004. - 53 p. The objective of the study of the discipline, the procedure for the implementation of NIR, planning and conducting the experiment, the design of the text of scientific work and applications to it, as well as the procedure for its protection. The course of lectures is intended for independent work of students who are trained in the field of areas of 655900 "Technology of raw materials and products of animal origin", 655600 "Production of food from vegetable raw materials", 655700 "Special purpose and catering food products", 552300 " Food technology »All forms of learning. Can be used as a postgraduate manual. UDC 001.89 (07) +371.385 BBK 72.4 (2) 73 © KamchartGTU, 2004 © Datsun V.M., 2004 2 Introduction The discipline "Fundamentals of research work" was introduced on the decree of the department and is designed to contribute to the development of skills and skills In solving scientific tasks. The total number of hours is 68, of which 17 hours. - Lectures. The rest of the time is diverted on independent work. Closed discipline offset. In the process of learning, students should acquire the ability to substantiate the direction of scientific search, achieve the result and learn how to apply the knowledge gained in solving professional tasks using modern scientific methods. The assimilation of scientific research methods contributes to the formation of the future scientific methods of the scientific way, which also helps better master the profession. Lecture 1. Scientific work in the specialty 1. Scientific study as the main form of scientific work. 2. Basic concepts of research work. 1. Scientific study as the main form of scientific work from creative intention to the final paperwork, scientific research is carried out individually. Modern scientific and theoretical thinking seeks to penetrate the essence of studied phenomena and processes. This is possible under the condition of an integer approach to the object of study, consideration of this facility in occurrence and development, i.e. historical approach to his study. Noise scientific results and previously accumulated knowledge are in dialectical interaction. The best and progressive from the old moves to the new and gives it strength and effectiveness. Study in a scientific sense means to keep search engines, as if looking into the future, apply scientific foresight and well-thought out calculation, to be scientifically objective. It is impossible to discard facts to the side just because they are difficult to explain or find it practical application. Scientific study obliges not only conscientiously to portray or simply describe the studied phenomenon, but also to recognize the attitude of it to what is known or from experience, or from the previous study. Study - it means to measure what can be measured, to show the numerical relation to the phenomenon being studied to a known, search for causal communication 3 between the phenomena under consideration, facts and events. Concentrating on basic or key issues, it is necessary to take into account the so-called indirect facts, which, at first glance, seem insignificant. In the study, it is not enough to establish any new scientific fact, it is important to give him an explanation from the position of science, show theoretical or practical significance. The accumulation of scientific facts in the process of studying the creative process, which always lies the intent (idea) of the researcher, his name. Ideas are born from practice, observations of the world around the world and needs. The development of the idea to the problem of solving the problem is committed as a planned process of scientific research. 2. Basic concepts of research and development The language of science is very specific. It has many concepts and terms having to borrow in scientific activities. The basis of the language is the words and the symbol of the terminological nature: the dissertation author's abstract is a scientific publication in the form of a brochure, which is contained by the author the abstract of the research conducted by him. Analogy - reasoning, in which, from the similarities of two objects on some signs, there is a conclusion about their similarity and on other features. The relevance of the topic is the degree of its importance at the moment and in this situation to solve this problem. Aspect - an angle of view, under which the object of the study is considered. The hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward for explaining any phenomena. Deduction is the form of conclusion from a common one to private, when a generalized conclusion is made from the mass of particular cases about the entire set of such cases. The dissertation is a scientific work performed in the form of a manuscript, a scientific report, published a monograph or textbook. It serves as a qualification work, designed to show the research level of the study submitted for a learning degree. The idea is a determining position in the system of views, theories, etc. Induction is the type of conclusion from private facts, provisions for general conclusions. Information: - Overview - secondary information contained in the reviews of scientific documents; - relevant - information concluded in the description of the prototype of the scientific task; - abstract - secondary information contained in primary scientific documents; 4 - signal - secondary information of varying degrees of coagulation that performs the function of pre-alert; - Reference - Secondary information, which is systemized brief information in any area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. Overview - a scientific document containing systematic scientific data on any topic, as a result of analyzing primary sources. The object of the study is a process or phenomenon generating a problem situation and elected to study. The definition is one of the methods that protect the misunderstandings in communication, dispute and research. The subject of research is all that is within the limits of the object of study in a specific aspect of consideration. The concept is a thought, which reflects the distinctive properties of objects and the relationship between them. The principle is the main, initial position of any theory, teachings, science. The problem is a major generalized many formulated scientific issues that cover the area of \u200b\u200bfuture research. Distinguish the following types of problems: - Research - a complex of related topics in the boundaries of one scientific discipline and in one application area; - comprehensive scientific - the relationship of research topics from various fields of science aimed at solving the most important people's tasks; - Scientific - a set of topics covering all research work or part of it; The judgment is a thought, with the help of which something is affirmed or denies. Theory - doctrine, system of ideas or principles. A combination of generalized provisions forming science or its section. The conclusion is a thought operation, by which, from a certain number of given judgments, a different judgment is derived defined with the initial way. Factographic document - a scientific document containing text, digital, illustrative and other information reflecting the state of research or collected as a result of research work. The claims - Description of the invention, compiled according to an apprrepid form and containing a summary of its essence. Opening formula - Description of the discovery, compiled according to the approved form and containing an exhaustive presentation, its essence. 5 Lecture 2. General methodology of scientific creativity 1. General scheme of the course of scientific research. 2. Use of scientific knowledge methods. 1. General scheme of the course of scientific research The whole course of scientific research can be represented in the form of the following logic scheme: - justification of the relevance of the chosen topic; - setting goals and specific objectives of the study; - determination of the object and the subject of the study; - the choice of the method (techniques) of the study; - description of the research process; - discussion of research results; - Formulation of conclusions and evaluation of the results obtained. The substantiation of the urgency of the chosen topic is the initial stage of any studio. Lighting relevance should be a few. Stop its description from afar there is no particular need. It is enough within the same typewritten page to show the essence of the problem situation, from which it will be visible to the relevance of the topic. Scientific research is carried out to overcome certain difficulties that manifest themselves in the so-called problematic situations, which existing scientific knowledge is insufficient to solve new problems of knowledge. The problem in science is a contradictory situation requiring its decision. From proof of the relevance of the chosen topic, it is logical to switch to the wording of the purpose of the study, as well as to indicate specific tasks to be solved in accordance with this purpose. The object is further formulated (process or phenomenon generates a problem and elected to study) and the subject (what is within the boundaries of the object) of the study. A very important stage of scientific research is the choice of methods of research, which serve as a tool in extracting the actual material, as a prerequisite for achieving the goal in such work. The description of the research process is the main part of the dissertation work, which covers the methodology and technology of research with the use of logical laws and rules. A very important stage of scientific research is a discussion of its results, a preliminary assessment of the theoretical and practical value of scientific work. The final stage of scientific research is the conclusions that contain that new and significant, which is scientific and practical results of work. 6 2. The use of scientific knowledge methods The methods of scientific knowledge are common and special. The methodological basis for scientific activity is put on criteria for objectivity, the correspondence of truth, historical truth, moral criteria. The methodological sources of research may be the works of leading domestic and foreign scientists. Most of the special problems of specific sciences and even certain stages of their research require the use of special solutions. Special solutions are very specific and is determined by the nature of the object under study. General methods of scientific knowledge are used throughout the studio process. They are divided into three groups: - Methods of empirical research (observation, comparison, measuring, experiment); - methods used both on empirical and theoretical level of research (abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, etc.); - Methods of theoretical research (climbing from abstract to specific, etc.). The observation is an active cognitive process that opens to the work of human senses and its subject material activities. This is the most elementary method, as a rule, as one of the elements in the composition of other empirical methods. Waging should satisfy a number of claims, the most important of which are: - Sparence; - focus; - activity; - Systemativity. Comparison is one of the most common methods of knowledge. It allows you to establish the similarity and distinction of objects and phenomena of validity. In order for the comparison to be fruitful, it should meet two basic requirements: - only such phenomena must be compared, between which a certain objective community may suffer; - To know objects, their comparison should be made most importantly, significant (in terms of a specific cognitive problem). Using comparison, information about the object can be obtained by two different ways: - as a direct result of comparison; - As a conclusion by analogy. 7 Measurement, in contrast to comparison, is a more accurate cognitive means. Measurement There is a procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain amount by means of a measurement unit. The most important indicator of the quality of measurement, its scientific value is accuracy. Among the empirical methods of scientific knowledge, the measurement occupies about the same place as observation and comparison. A special occasion of observation is the experiment. An experimental study of objects compared with observation has a number of advantages: - in the process of the experiment, it becomes possible to study one or another phenomenon in "pure form"; - the experiment allows to investigate the properties of objects in extreme conditions; - The most important advantage of the experiment is his repeatability. The use of models allows you to apply the experimental method of research to such objects, direct operating with which is difficult or even impossible. The methods used on the empirical and theoretical levels of studies include abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. The abstraction process is a combination of operations leading to the result (abstraction). Abstraction is wearing a universal character in mental activity. The essence of this method consists in mental distraction from insignificant properties, relationships, relationships, items and simultaneously allocations, fixing one or more of the interrogatives of the parties to these items. The abstraction process and the abstraction result called abstraction are distinguished. The abstraction process is closely associated with other research methods, and above all with analysis and synthesis. Analysis is a scientific research method by decomposition of the subject part. Synthesis is a compound when analyzing parts in something integer. Methods of analysis and synthesis in scientific works are organically related to each other and can take various forms depending on the properties of the object being studied and the objective of the study. Direct and empirical analysis and synthesis is applied at the stage of superficial familiarization with the object. Return, or elementary-theoretical, analysis and synthesis is widely used as a tool for achieving moments of the essence of the studied phenomenon. The most deeply penetration into the essence of the object allows structural-genetic analysis and synthesis. This type of analysis and synthesis requires the decaying in the complex phenomenon of such elements, such links that represent the most central, the most important thing in them, their "cell", which has a decisive effect on all other parties to the entity of the object. For the study of complex developing objects, a test method is applied. It is used only where, anyway, the object of the object becomes the test. 8 of the following methods Consider the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific one. Climbing from the abstract to a specific (the method of a retreative study) is an universal form of movement of scientific knowledge, the law of making reality in thinking, dividing the process of knowledge of two relative to independent stages. At the first stage there is a transition from a sensual-specific, from a particular actual definition to its abstract definitions. The unified object is dismembered, described using a plurality of concepts and judgments. The second stage of the process of cognition is the climbing from the accompaniment to the concrete. Its essence consists in the movement of thought from the abstract definitions of the object. Lecture 3. General methodology of scientific creativity 1. The use of logical laws and rules. 2. Tanning judgments (inductive and deductive). 3. Rules for constructing logical definitions. 1 Application of logical laws and rules law identity. According to the law of the identity, the subject of thought within one reasoning should remain unchanged, i.e., there is a (a \u003d a), where a - thought. The law requires that in the course of communication all the concepts and judgments of the non-social character, excluding ambiguity and uncertainty. Externally, the same verbal structures may have different content, and, on the contrary, one and the same thought can be expressed in different ways. The first phenomenon is called homonymy, the second is synonymous. The law of contradiction expresses the requirement of consistency of one's mind. At the same time, two statements cannot be true, one of which claims something, and the other denies the same. The law of an excluded third - from two contradictions of the narrowed one falsely, and the other is truly. There is no third. The importance of the law of an excluded third to maintain scientific work is that it requires compliance with the sequence in the presentation of facts and does not allow contradictions. The law of sufficient basis expresses the requirement of evidence of scientific conclusions, the validity of judgments, which is formulated as follows: every true thought has a sufficient basis. Any judgment that we use in scientific work before being accepted for truth must be justified. This law helps to separate the true and faithful conclusion. 9 2. Reloing judgments (inductive and deductive) deductive are called a conclusion in which the conclusion about a certain element of the set is made on the basis of knowledge of the general properties of the entire set. Under the induction is usually understood to be a conclusion from the private to a common one, when, on the basis of knowledge about part of the class items, it is concluded about the class as a whole. Induction (or generalization) is complete and partial. Full consists in the study of each case included in the class of phenomena, about which conclusions are made. Most indicators cited in scientific texts are the input of the list of individual examples, the methods of validity of their use in the texts are as follows: - to establish whether the example is based on the basis of generalization; - to find out whether an example is attached to the conclusion; - determine whether examples are given enough; - Install, are typical of the selected examples. In scientific research, the object often acts about the events, objects and phenomena in their individual characteristics. With their explanation and evaluation, the use of both deductive and inductive reasoning is difficult. In this case, it is resorted to conclusion by analogy when the new unit phenomenon is likened to another, which is known and similar to one single phenomenon, and distribute to the first previously obtained information. Not all the analogies are logical, so they need to check. There are two ways to check them: 1) Is it really a comparison of phenomena?; 2) Is there a significant difference between them? The judgment of the causal dependence is another induction variant, which played a particularly important role in the scientific text. In each controversial case, the conclusion of the causal dependence is the following verification rules: 1. Does the estimated consequence arise when there is no assumed reason? If the answer is "yes", then you are not entitled to argue that the predetermining phenomenon is the only possible reason. In this case, or there is no connection between two phenomena, or there is another possible reason. 2. Is there any intended consequence when the estimated order is obvious? If the answer is "yes", then you are not entitled to argue that the subsequent phenomenon is the only possible consequence. Or there is no connection between two phenomena, or there is another possible consequence. 3. Is there a single relationship between the consequence and its preliminary reason only the accidental occurrence of one after the other? This method allows you to identify a characteristic error in the conclusion of the reason, well known called "after that, therefore, by 10