Psychological foundations of types of training. The main psychological problems of traditional teaching Psychological foundations of systems of types and technologies of teaching

In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory and illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative aspects.

The traditional type of education is the most common today. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Komensky ("The Great Didactics").

The term "traditional education" implies, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that took shape in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and is still prevalent in the schools of the world.

Traditional education has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore of the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the "foundations of the sciences", and the orientation of the subject of the teaching on the future content of professional and practical activity and of the entire culture.

Today the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problem learning.

Problem-based learning is usually understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.

In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. known two bases of the concept of problem learning (J. Dewey, W. Burton).

Dewey's pedocentric concept had a great influence on the general nature of the teaching and educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called complex programs and in the project method.

The theory of problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century. in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, and develop the independence of the student.

The basis of problem learning is a problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of a student that arises in the process of completing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for its implementation.

Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).

The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century. American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the effectiveness of the management of the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology.

The training programs built on a behavioristic basis are subdivided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs of N. Crowder.

In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed teaching were actively studied, and the learning achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century. One of the leading experts in this field is Professor of Moscow University N.F. Talyzin.

The education system that has developed in our country, which has deep, including historical, roots, has undergone a number of significant transformations and state reforms. Specialists from the field of pedagogy and its history are purposefully engaged in the examination and analysis of "this complex and contradictory process. In the modern system and organization of school education, there are different options, experimental, author's and others, developments, national and elite educational institutions. Consider the learning process in its mass , the most widespread, generalized typical performance, which is called “traditional.” In this case, this term does not contain any negative meaning. On the contrary, many traditions of Russian education (general secondary and higher) deserve to be preserved and qualitatively developed. Highlighted psychological problems of the current system trainings are also not new, but in their own way classical, painful, but always relevant. They are associated with a number of objective difficulties, sometimes flaws in terms of both theoretical and purely practical. Many of them can be considered a consequence insufficient equipping of mass performer teachers with the appropriate knowledge of human psychology or the inability to apply psychology in everyday teaching and educational work.

1. The main problem is the lack of activity of students in the learning process. The point is not in the activity as such, not in the general intensification of the students' work, but in the purposeful organization of a psychologically full-fledged, meaningful and adequately oriented learning activity. The solution to this professional problem is the central point of all pedagogical activity. Every experienced teacher does it in his own way, creatively, sometimes achieving remarkable results. But the task is to make sure that every professional teacher can do it. This requires an appropriately designed and universally implemented system. Some of the more well-known variants of such psychological and pedagogical concepts are described in the next chapter. Therefore, we will now single out only one, but extremely significant psychological aspect of teaching, namely the need-motivational one.

There is no activity that does not meet the need and is not subordinate to the motive, which is expressed in the corresponding goals. Like all real activities, human learning is polymotivated, i.e. obeys not one motive of cognition, but several others "simultaneously". In educational practice, you need to realize this, recognize it as a fact of life, and not as a theoretical psychological calculation. Then the possibilities of motivational "influences" on the activity of learning are significantly expanded. A person learns not only for the sake of acquiring knowledge and skills, but also for the sake of communication, for competition with other people and with himself, for self-affirmation and self-development. The human need for knowledge, like all others, does not appear in reality.
inexhaustible, and it is psychologically unreasonable to build the entire educational process on it. Moreover, it is psychologically incorrect, not humane in relation to the student. After all, a child at school, and a student at a university, not only study, but also really live, interact with the whole world through the education system.

Education is designed to prepare a person not only for work, but also | to all life. And the process of education itself is also life itself, a part of it, and not just preparation for life. This means that the organization and content of the educational process requires maximum consideration and feasible involvement, the actualization of many human needs and motives, the use of all possible meanings of teaching. Competent motivation for learning activities should be based on knowledge and consideration of the entire hierarchy of personal needs.

A prerequisite for the formation of a full-fledged teaching is the formation of its connections with all other types of student activities, with his real behavior. In such a teaching, the whole personality is involved, and not only its cognitive sphere.

2. The second "drawback" of traditional education is considered to be its explanatory and illustrative nature. This does not mean that in the process of teaching the teacher does not need to intelligibly explain the material being studied, it does not need to be visually illustrated. Without this, learning is simply impossible. But this raises two interdependent questions: how to explain and what to illustrate?

An overly detailed, intrusive explanation can lead to an unacceptable simplification of the content of the educational material. But the main thing is that it excludes the work of thinking of the students themselves. In this way, their perception is involved. The simple and wise "formula": "A bad teacher presents the truth, a good teacher teaches how to find it" - there is a deep psychological meaning.

The need to use illustrations in the educational process is usually confirmed by the didactic principle of clarity, which in reality is not so omnipotent and universal.

In this regard, let us cite the well-known example of A.N. Leontyev, assigned to elementary school. When teaching children arithmetic operations, the teacher uses carefully drawn tanks, cannons, planes instead of the traditional visual material (balls, sticks, cubes). Since we are talking about the war period, the teacher is guaranteed to ensure the attention of students in the lesson. But this attention is not to number, to addition or subtraction, but to topical military subjects. The schoolchildren must have carefully examined them, compared and studied them. But most likely, there was no proper attention to the subject of study. In any case, such clarity did not help him in the least.

In fact, such pedagogical errors occur due to an incorrect psychological interpretation of attention, the subject of which is a conscious goal, and not the physical brightness or expressiveness of the object. In addition, mindfulness as a behavioral concentration does not always mean the actual presence of attention precisely to the subject that is implied by the teacher. Visibility can be confusing if it does not correspond to the actual goals of the process of the organized Teaching. Such over-expressive illustrations destroy educational activities and therefore interfere with the process of assimilating educational material.

3. A very common flaw in traditional teaching is the overload of students' arbitrary memory with a corresponding underload of their thinking, especially creativity. A person, of course, can “memorize” the material, and then, when answering, reproduce it verbatim, “pass” it, return it to the teacher along with the exam. But memorization does not mean understanding yet, i.e. what is necessary for the subsequent use of the knowledge gained. This requires special exercises, requires active involvement of thinking in the learning process. It goes without saying that there is no understanding without the participation of memory. These are related mental processes that necessarily mediate each other. But they are not the same in function and results. You can, for example, understand something, but not remember. It all depends on the content of the educational material, the organization of the learning process, on the individual psychological characteristics of students. In any case, memory should not be considered the "central link" of learning, although without its presence any psyche is ineffective.

It should be emphasized that in the organization of the educational process it is precisely the voluntary memory of students that is overloaded, while it is possible and necessary to make wider use of the known regularities of the involuntary memory of a person. The learning process can be essentially organized in such a way that students practically do not need to memorize anything specifically. The material necessary for assimilation will, as it were, involuntarily enter the memory and consciousness of the trainees. This requires setting appropriate goals for the student, i.e. controlled formation of its external, and then internal activity with educational material.

As for the creativity of students in the learning process, this issue is, apparently, one of the most difficult and debatable, on the one hand, learning is built on the solid assimilation of previous, established knowledge. On the other hand, creativity is the discovery of something new, i.e. rejection of the old, its certain striking out. True creativity is simply impossible without exhaustive conceptual knowledge. But the categorical, dogmatic style of teaching, of course, does not contribute to the formation and development of students' independence and creativity. A teacher in his work must be a free thinking, intellectually confident and at the same time doubting, creative person - this is the main condition for the formation and psychological support of students' creativity.

Every normal child has certain prerequisites for creative activity. These are his famous fantasies, the period of word creation, colorful imagination, craving for visual activity. It is important to maintain and develop such prerequisites in the course of a focused and therefore somewhat limited training program; all the more since in psychology there is a view according to which all thinking is the discovery of something new, and therefore there is at the same time creativity.

4. A special problem of traditional education is the lack of control over the process and the result. With all the methodological elaboration of the school lesson system, the educational process implemented by it cannot be considered fully manageable and controlled, which is caused by a whole set of circumstances of both objective and purely human, subjective origin. This includes multifactorial determinism, the variability of the psyche itself, and the impossibility of complete control of the influences of all external influences, and the multidimensionality of the goals of education, and the problems of objective assessment (or measurement) of its results. The implementation of the maximum possible controllability of the process, and, accordingly, the learning outcome is achieved by a fundamental change in the methodology and technology itself, and not just a technique or a private teaching methodology. Thus, the very internal organization of the educational material changes, the principles and methods of constructing the process of its assimilation are qualitatively transformed (D.B. Elkonin). Behind all this there must be serious theoretical substantiations, corresponding to the psychological models of the learning process and the personality itself.

5. As an inevitable difficulty, problem, cost of any mass education, there is a forced orientation towards the so-called "average" (in terms of abilities and capabilities) student. In the absence of quantitatively rigorous measurements, it is customary to breed almost any quality in people into three levels: low, medium and high. In reality, everything is much more complicated, and according to the severity of any mental property in a large mass of people there is a continuous and special statistical distribution... Sharp qualitative, typological gradations of people are sometimes like a label, and therefore greatly simplify our ideas about the process or property under study.

“Average” students are always in the majority, therefore in his work the teacher is directed towards them, and not towards the “weak” or “strong”. This seems to be quite reasonable, only from this in their own way, and some, and others, and still others. In fact, this
the problem can be solved only through deep individualization of education, which is practically unattainable in the context of a mass educational process. But it is possible and necessary for every teacher to strive for this, i.e. maximum accounting
main age, all kinds of typical and proper individual psychological characteristics of students. The problem of individual differences in the success of mastering educational material seems to be softened, smoothed out in the conditions of special forms of developmental education. This does not mean that all students become
equally successful. But there are fewer “weak” ones, and “strong” ones - more than in the conditions of traditional education.

Of course, in modern education there are many other topical and important psychological issues, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of the textbook. The main issue is to ensure the indispensable and equal participation of modern psychological science in the organization, implementation, and even more so in the reform of the educational process.

(?) Control questions

1. What branches of scientific knowledge are related to educational psychology?

2. How do the terms “education” and “literacy” relate?

3. What are the main qualitative features of training?

4. What levels of human learning can be identified based on
psychological characteristics of his teaching activities?

5. What are the costs of the explanatory and illustrative nature of traditional education?

6. What is the ratio of memory and thinking in learning activities?

(T) Test tasks

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?

A. Learning process.

B. Educational process.

B. Psychology of the student and teacher.

D. Psychological foundations of pedagogy.

2. Which of these concepts is the broadest?

B. Educational activities.

B. Training.
D. Teaching.

3. The human learning process is ...

A. Inherently conditioned.

B. Inevitable.

B. Spontaneous.

D. Organized.

4. The term "teaching" means ...

A. Synonym for knowledge.

B. Learning Activities.

B. The work of the teacher.

D. Interaction between teacher and student.

Similar information.

level of actual development zone his nearest development.

are of different kinds contradictions:

cognitive sphere personality

Concept "Personality"

The essence of traditional learning

In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory and illustrative), problem-based and programmed.

Each of these types has both positive and negative sides. However, there are clear supporters of both types of training. Often they absolutize the merits of their preferred training and do not fully take into account its disadvantages. Practice shows that the best results can be achieved only with an optimal combination of different types of training. An analogy can be made with the so-called technologies of intensive teaching of foreign languages. Their supporters often absolutize the advantages of suggestive (related to suggestion) methods of memorizing foreign words on a subconscious level, and, as a rule, dismiss the traditional methods of teaching. foreign languages... But the rules of grammar are not mastered by suggestion. They are mastered by long-established and now traditional teaching methods.

Traditional training is the most common today. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Komensky (Komensky Ya.A., "Great Didactics" 1955).

The term "traditional education" implies, first of all, the classroom organization of teaching that took shape in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and is still prevalent in the schools of the world.

Distinctive features of traditional classroom and lesson technology are as follows: students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that retains a largely constant composition for the entire period of schooling; the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of the year and at predetermined hours of the day; the main unit of study is a lesson; a lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, a topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material; the work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he assesses the results of studies in his subject, the level of training of each student individually and at the end of the school year decides to transfer students to the next class; educational books (textbooks) are mainly used for homework. The academic year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, changes, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons are attributes of the classroom system.

Problem learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages

Programmed learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages

Types of tutorials

Behavioral training programs are subdivided into: a) linear, developed by Skinner, and b) ramified programs of N. Crowder.

1. Linear system of programmed learning, originally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner in the early 60s. XX century. based on the behavioral trend in psychology.

He put forward the following requirements for the organization of training:

• In teaching, the student must go through a sequence of carefully selected and placed "steps".
• Education should be structured in such a way that the student is "busy and busy" all the time, so that he not only perceives the teaching material, but also operates on it.
• Before moving on to the study of the following material, the student should have a good understanding of the previous one.
• The student needs to be helped by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), by prompting, prompting, etc.
• Each student's correct answer needs to be reinforced using feedback, not only to shape certain behaviors, but also to maintain interest in learning.

According to this system, students go through all the steps of the training program sequentially, in the order in which they are given in the program. The tasks in each step are to fill in a gap in the informational text with one or more words. After that, the student must check his solution with the correct one, which was previously closed in some way. If the student's answer turned out to be correct, then he must proceed to the next step; if his answer does not coincide with the correct one, then he must complete the task again. Thus, the linear programmed teaching system is based on the teaching principle, which assumes error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the steps of the program and assignments are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the student learns mainly by completing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of the task fulfillment serves as a reinforcement to stimulate the student's further activity.

1. Linear programs are designed for the error-free steps of all students, ie. must match the capabilities of the weakest of them. Due to this, the correction of programs is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must go through the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).

2. An extensive program of programmed learning. Its founder is the American teacher N. Crowder. In these programs, which have become widespread, in addition to the main program designed for strong students, additional programs (auxiliary branches) are provided, to one of which the student is sent in case of difficulty. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training, not only in terms of the pace of advancement, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up greater opportunities for the formation of rational types of cognitive activity than linear ones, limiting cognitive activity mainly by perception and memory.

Control tasks in the steps of this system consist of a task or question and a set of several answers, including usually one correct, and the rest incorrect, containing typical errors. The student must choose one answer from this set. If he chose the correct answer, then he receives reinforcement in the form of confirmation of the correct answer and an instruction to proceed to the next step of the program. If he chose the wrong answer, the essence of the mistake is explained to him, and he is instructed to return to some of the previous steps of the program or to go to some subroutine.

In addition to these two main systems of programmed learning, many others have been developed that, to one degree or another, use a linear or branched principle, or both of these principles, to construct a sequence of steps in a training program.

The general drawback of programs built on a behavioristic basis is the impossibility of controlling the internal, mental activity of students, control over which is limited to registering the final result (response). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs carry out control according to the "black box" principle, which in relation to human training is unproductive, since the main goal in training is to form rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that it is not only the responses that need to be controlled, but the pathways leading to them. The practice of programmed learning has shown the inadequacy of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to the training programs within the framework of the behavioral learning model did not lead to significant improvement in results.

Psychological foundations of types of learning

The question of the relationship between learning and development is fundamental for educational psychology. There are different points of view on the solution of this issue. So, according to one of them, learning is development (W. James, Edv. Thorndike, J. Watson, K. Koffka). According to another, learning is only external conditions in which maturation and development are realized and manifested (V. Stern, J. Piaget).

A different point of view, clearly formulated by L. S. Vygotsky, prevails in Russian psychology. According to this point of view, education and upbringing play a leading role in the mental development of a child, for "learning goes ahead of development, advancing it further and causing new formations in it" 2. Proceeding from this understanding of the connection between learning and development, L.S. level of actual development(the present level of the student's readiness, which is characterized by the level of intellectual development, determined by the tasks that the student can perform independently) and the level that determines zone his nearest development.

As LS Vygotsky emphasizes, the second level of mental development is achieved by a child in cooperation with an adult, and not by direct imitation of his actions, but by solving problems that are in the zone of his intellectual capabilities.

Driving forces of mental development are of different kinds contradictions: between human needs and external circumstances; between increasing abilities (physical and spiritual) and old forms of activity; between the needs generated by the new activity and the possibilities of their satisfaction; between new demands of activity and unformed skills in general, dialectical contradictions between the new and the old. In other words, the driving force of a person's mental development is the contradiction between the achieved level of development of his knowledge, skills, abilities, the system of motives and the types of his connection with the environment. This understanding of the driving forces of mental development was developed by L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin. On this basis, D. B. Elkonin determined the age periods of mental development by the nature of changes in the child's leading types of activity. Taking into account the contradictions arising in the educational process between new cognitive needs and the available means of their satisfaction is the organization of the driving forces of human development.

Human development lasts throughout his life. Mental development a person is carried out along the line of development a) cognitive sphere child (formation of intelligence, development of mechanisms of consciousness); b) mental structure of activity(goals, motives, their correlation, methods and means); v) personality(orientation, value orientations, self-awareness).

Concept "Personality" has various interpretations. In particular, personality is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, which is formed both in joint activity and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of "personality" characterizes a person as a social being

• The distinguishing features of the traditional classroom-lesson technology are as follows:
  • students of approximately the same age and skill level constitute a class that remains largely constant throughout the entire period of schooling;
  • the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a consequence, children must come to school at the same time of the year and at predetermined hours of the day;
  • the main unit of study is a lesson;
  • a lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one academic subject, a topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material;
  • the work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he assesses the results of studies in his subject, the level of training of each student individually and at the end of the school year decides to transfer students to the next class;
  • educational books (textbooks) are mainly used for homework. Academic year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, changes, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes Classroom-lesson system - the organization of training sessions in an educational institution, in which training is carried out frontally in classes with a permanent composition of students for the current period a certain period of time to the schedule, and the main form of classes is a lesson. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> classroom system ().

(; see laboratory of psychology of teaching PI RAO).

8.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of traditional education

The undoubted advantage of traditional teaching is the ability to convey a large amount of information in a short time. With such training, students acquire knowledge in a ready-made form without revealing ways of proving its truth. In addition, it involves the assimilation and reproduction of knowledge and their application in similar situations (Fig. 3). Among the significant disadvantages of this type of learning, one can name its focus more on memory than on thinking (Atkinson R., 1980; abstract). This training also contributes little to the development of creativity, independence, activity. The most typical tasks are as follows: insert, highlight, underline, remember, reproduce, solve by example, etc. The educational and cognitive process is largely reproductive (reproducing) in nature, as a result of which the reproductive style of cognitive activity is formed in students. Therefore, it is often called the "school of memory". As practice shows, the amount of information communicated exceeds the possibilities of its assimilation (the contradiction between the content and procedural components of the learning process). In addition, there is no opportunity to adapt the pace of learning to various individual psychological characteristics of students (the contradiction between frontal learning and the individual nature of the assimilation of knowledge) (see animation). It is necessary to note some features of the formation and development of motivation for learning in this type of learning.

8.1.3. The main contradictions of traditional education

A.A. Verbitsky () identified the following contradictions in traditional teaching (Chrest. 8.1):
1. The contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (hence, of the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the "foundations of science", and the orientation of the subject of the study to the future content of professional and practical activity and the entire culture... The future appears for the student in the form of Abstraction (from Lat. Abstractio - distraction) - one of the main operations of thinking, consisting in the fact that the subject, isolating any signs of the studied object, is distracted from the rest. The result of this process is the construction of a mental product (concept, model, theory, classification, etc.), which is also denoted by the term "onmouseout =" nd (); "href =" javascript: void (0); "> abstract, not motivating it prospects for the application of knowledge, therefore, the teaching has no personal meaning for him. Turning into the past, fundamentally known, "cutting out" from the spatio-temporal context (past - present - future) deprives the student of the possibility of colliding with the unknown, with a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty, caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of the previously acquired knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity for solving the arisen cognitive task. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem situation- the situation of the generation of thinking.
2. The duality of educational information - it acts as a part of culture and at the same time only as a means of its assimilation, personality development. The resolution of this contradiction lies in the way of overcoming the "abstract school method" and modeling in the educational process such real conditions of life and activity that would allow the student to "return" to culture enriched intellectually, spiritually and practically and thereby become the reason for the development of the culture itself.
3. The contradiction between the integrity of culture and its mastery by the subject through a variety of subject areas - academic disciplines as representatives of sciences. This tradition is reinforced by the division of school teachers (into subject teachers) and the department structure of the university. As a result, instead of a holistic picture of the world, the student receives fragments of a "broken mirror", which he himself is not able to collect.
4. The contradiction between the way of existence of culture as a process and its representation in teaching in the form of static sign systems. Education appears as a technology of transferring ready-made educational material alienated from the dynamics of the development of culture, taken out of the context of both the forthcoming independent life and activity, and from the current needs of the individual himself. As a result, not only the individual, but also the culture is outside the processes of development.
5. The contradiction between the social form of the existence of culture and the individual form of its appropriation by students. In traditional pedagogy, it is not allowed, since the student does not join his efforts with others to produce a joint product - knowledge. By being with others in a group of learners, everyone "dies alone." Moreover, for helping others, the student is punished (by censure of the "hint"), thereby encouraging his individualistic behavior.

The principle of individualization , understood as the isolation of students in individual forms of work and according to individual programs, especially in the computer version, excludes the possibility of educating a creative individuality, which, as you know, they become not through Robinsonade, but through "another person" in the process of dialogical communication and interaction, where a person performs not just objective actions, but an Act - a conscious action, evaluated as an act of moral self-determination of a person, in which he asserts himself as a person - in his relation to another person, himself, a group or society, to nature as a whole. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> actions (Unt I.E., 1990; abstract).
It is an act (and not an individual object-related action) that should be considered as a unit of a student's activity.
Deed - this is a socially conditioned and morally normalized action that has both an objective and a socio-cultural component, presupposing the response of another person, taking into account this response and correcting own behavior... Such interchange of actions and deeds presupposes the subordination of the subjects of communication to certain moral principles and norms of relations between people, mutual consideration of their positions, interests and moral values. Under this condition, the gap between education and upbringing is bridged, The problem is the awareness of the possibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem correlations Learning - in a broad sense - is a joint activity of a teacher and students, aimed at the child's assimilation of the meanings of objects of material and spiritual culture, ways of acting with them; in the narrow sense, - the joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> learning and Education - 1) purposeful human development, including the development of culture, values ​​and norms of society; 2) the process of socialization of an individual, his formation and development as a personality throughout his life in the course of his own activity and under the influence of the natural, social and cultural environment, incl. specially organized purposeful activity of parents and teachers; 3) the acquisition by an individual of socially recognized and approved by this community of social values, moral and legal norms, personality traits and patterns of behavior in educational processes. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> parenting. After all, no matter what a person does, no matter what substantive, technological action he performs, he always “acts,” since he enters into the fabric of culture and social relations.
Many of the above problems are successfully solved in the problem type of training.

8.2. Problem learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages

8.2.1. Historical aspects of problem-based learning

Foreign experience. In the history of pedagogy, the formulation of questions to the interlocutor, causing difficulty in finding an answer to them, is known from the conversations of Socrates, the Pythagorean school, Sophists (from the Greek sophistes - artisan, sage, false sage) - in Ancient Greece people who are knowledgeable in some area: 1) professional teachers of philosophy and eloquence of the 2nd half of the V-1st floor. IV centuries. BC NS. (Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodic, Antiphon, Critias, etc.). Sophists are characterized by a shift of interests from the search for the absolute truth about space and being to the development of pragmatic recipes for human behavior "ii-v =" "onmouseout =" nd (); "href =" javascript: void (0); "> Sophists. Ideas of activation training, mobilization of the cognitive forces of students by including them in independent research activities were reflected in the works of J.J. Rousseau, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. " Teaching methods - methods of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems (YK Babansky). ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> teaching methods.

• The development of ways to enhance the mental activity of students led in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. to the introduction of certain teaching methods into teaching:
  • heuristic (G. Armstrong);
  • experimental heuristic (A.Ya. Gerd);
  • laboratory-heuristic (F.A. Wintergalter);
  • the method of laboratory lessons (K.P. Yagodovsky);
  • natural science education (A.P. Pinkevich) and others.

All of the above methods of B.E. Raikov, by virtue of their common essence, replaced the term "research method". The research method of teaching, which has intensified the practical activity of students, has become a kind of antipode to the traditional method. Its application created an atmosphere of passion for learning in the school, giving students the joy of independent search and discovery and, most importantly, ensured the development of the cognitive independence of children, their creative activity. The use of the research method of teaching as a universal one in the early 30s. XX century. was found to be erroneous. It was proposed to build training for the formation of a system of knowledge that does not violate Logic (Greek logike) - the science of methods of proof and refutation; a set of scientific theories, each of which considers certain methods of proof and refutation. Aristotle is considered the founder of logic. Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic, and in the latter - classical, intuitionistic, constructive, modal, etc. All these theories are united by the desire to catalog such modes of reasoning, which from true judgments-premises lead to true judgments-consequences; cataloging is carried out, as a rule, within the framework of logical calculus. Applications of logic in computational mathematics, the theory of automata, linguistics, computer science, etc. play a special role in accelerating scientific and technological progress. See also Mathematical logic. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> item logic. However, the massive use of illustrative teaching and dogmatic memorization did not contribute to the development of school education. The search for ways to activate the educational process began. A definite influence on the development of the theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. It sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive in nature; 2) the method of active interaction of the subject with the problematic presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their resolution, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem learning During this period, research by psychologists (S.L. Rubinstein), who substantiated the dependence of human mental activity on solving problems, and the concept of problem learning, which developed in pedagogy on the basis of a pragmatic understanding of thinking, were provided.
In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. there are two main concepts of problem learning. J. Dewey proposed to replace all types and forms of teaching with independent teaching of schoolchildren by solving problems, with the emphasis on their educational and practical form (Dewey J., 1999; abstract). The essence of the second concept lies in the mechanical transfer of the conclusions of psychology to the learning process. V. Burton () believed that learning is "the acquisition of new reactions or changing old ones" and reduced the learning process to simple and complex reactions, not taking into account the influence of the environment and conditions of upbringing on the development of a student's thinking.

John Dewey

Starting his experiments in one of the Chicago schools in 1895, J. Dewey focused on the development of the students' own activity. He soon became convinced that learning, built taking into account the interests of schoolchildren and related to their life needs, gives much better results than verbal (verbal, book) learning, based on memorization of knowledge. The main contribution of J. Dewey to the theory of learning is the concept of the "complete act of thinking" developed by him. According to the philosophical and psychological views of the author, a person begins to think when he encounters difficulties, overcoming which is of great importance for him.
Correctly structured training, according to J. Dewey, should be problematic. At the same time, the problems posed to the students themselves are fundamentally different from the proposed traditional educational tasks - "imaginary problems" that have low educational and educational value and often lag far behind what students are interested in.
Compared to the traditional system, J. Dewey proposed bold innovations and unexpected solutions. The place of "book learning" was taken by the principle of active learning, the basis of which is the student's own cognitive activity. The place of an active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher who does not impose on students either the content or methods of work, but only helps to overcome difficulties when the students themselves turn to him for help. Instead of a stable curriculum common to all, orientation programs were introduced, the content of which was determined by the teacher only in the most general terms. The place of the spoken and written word was taken by theoretical and practical classes, in which students' independent research work was carried out.
To the school system based on the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, he contrasted learning "by doing", ie. one in which all knowledge was drawn from the practical initiative and personal experience of the child. In schools that worked according to the J. Dewey system, there was no permanent program with a sequential system of subjects studied, but only the knowledge necessary for the life experience of students was selected. According to the scientist, the student should engage in those activities that allowed civilization to reach the modern level. Therefore, attention should be focused on constructive activities: teaching children to cook food, sew, introduce them to needlework, etc. Around this utilitarian knowledge and skills, information of a more general nature is concentrated.
J. Dewey adhered to the so-called pedocentric theory and teaching methods. According to her, the role of the teacher in the processes of teaching and upbringing is reduced mainly to guiding students' self-activity and awakening their curiosity. In the methodology of J. Dewey, along with labor processes, games, improvisations, excursions, amateur performances, and home economics occupied an important place. He contrasted the upbringing of students' discipline with the development of their individuality.
In a labor school, work, according to Dewey, is the focus of all teaching and educational work. By performing various types of work and acquiring the knowledge necessary for work, children thereby prepare for the life ahead.
Pedocentrism (from the Greek pais, paidos - child and Latin centrum - center) is the principle of a number of pedagogical systems (J.J. Rousseau, free education, etc.), requiring the organization of training and education without relying on curricula and programs, and only on the basis of the child's immediate motives. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> Pedocentric concept J. Dewey had a great influence on the general nature of the teaching and educational work of schools in the United States and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called complex programs and in the method of projects.

The greatest influence on the development of the modern concept Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. It sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive in nature; 2) the method of active interaction of the subject with the problematic presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their resolution, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem learning provided by the work of an American psychologist (Bruner J., 1977; abstract). It is based on the ideas of structuring educational material and the dominant role of intuitive thinking in the process of assimilating new knowledge as the basis Heuristic - "onmouseout =" nd (); "href =" javascript: void (0); "> heuristic thinking... Bruner paid the main attention to the structure of knowledge, which should include all the necessary elements of the knowledge system and determine the direction of the student's development.

• Modern American theories of "learning by solving problems" (W. Alexander, P. Halverson and others), in contrast to the theory of J. Dewey, have their own characteristics:
  • they do not overemphasize the importance of the "self-expression" of the student and belittle the role of the teacher;
  • the principle of collective problem solving is affirmed, in contrast to the extreme individualization observed earlier;
  • the method of problem solving in learning is assigned a supportive role.

In the 70-80s. XX century. the concept of problem learning by the English psychologist E. de Bono, who focuses on six levels of thinking, became widespread.
In the development of the theory of problem learning, certain results were achieved by teachers from Poland, Bulgaria, Germany and other countries. So, a Polish teacher (V. Okon, 1968, 1990) investigated the conditions for the occurrence of problem situations on the material of various academic subjects and, together with Ch. Kupisevich, proved the advantage of learning by solving problems for the development of the mental abilities of students. Problem-based teaching was understood by Polish teachers only as one of the teaching methods. Bulgarian teachers (I. Petkov, M. Markov) dealt mainly with questions of an applied nature, focusing on the organization of problem-based learning in primary school.

• Domestic experience. Theory Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. It sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive in nature; 2) the method of active interaction of the subject with the problematic presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their resolution, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century. in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, and develop the independence of the student, however, I ran into certain difficulties:
  • in traditional didactics, the task of "teaching to think" was not considered as an independent task; the teachers focused on the issues of accumulating knowledge and developing memory;
  • the traditional system of teaching methods could not "overcome the spontaneity in the formation of theoretical thinking in children" (V. V. Davydov);
  • the study of the problem of the development of thinking was carried out mainly by psychologists, the pedagogical theory of the development of thinking and abilities was not developed.

As a result, the domestic mass school has not accumulated the practice of using methods specifically aimed at the development of thinking - the most generalized and mediated form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. It allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its course are studied by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling some mental functions. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> thinking. Great importance for the formation of the theory of problem learning, they had the work of psychologists who concluded that mental development is characterized not only by the volume and quality of acquired knowledge, but also by the structure of thought processes, a system of logical operations and Mental actions are various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> mental actions owned by the student (S.L. Rubinstein, N.A. Menchinskaya, T.V. Kudryavtsev), and revealed the role of the problem situation in thinking and learning (Matyushkin A.M., 1972; abstract).
M.I. Makhmutov, I. Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dairi, D.V. Vilkeev (see Chrest. 8.2). The provisions of the theory of activity (S.L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, V. V. Davydov) became the starting points for the development of the theory of problem-based learning. Problems in learning were considered as one of the patterns of mental activity of students. Methods of creating a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of the previously acquired knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity for solving the arisen cognitive task. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem situations in various academic subjects and found criteria for assessing the complexity of problem cognitive tasks. Gradually spreading, problem learning from the general education school penetrated into the secondary and higher vocational schools. The methods of problem learning are being improved, in which one of the important components is improvisation (from the Latin improvisus - unexpected, sudden) - writing poetry, music, etc. at the time of execution; performing with something not prepared in advance; a work created in this way. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> improvisation, especially when solving communication problems (). A system of teaching methods emerged, in which the creation of a problem situation by the teacher and the solution of problems by the students became the main condition for the development of their thinking. This system distinguishes between general methods (monological, indicative, dialogical, heuristic, research, programmed, algorithmic) and binary - the rules of interaction between teacher and students. On the basis of this system of methods, some new pedagogical technologies have also been developed (V.F.Shatalov, P.M. Erdniev, G.A.Rudik, etc.).

8.2.2. The essence of problem learning

Today the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problem learning.
What is the essence of problem learning? It is interpreted as a teaching principle, as a new type of educational process, as a teaching method, and as a new didactic system.
Under problem learning usually understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of the teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them(see fig. 5).
Problem-based learning consists in creating problem situations, in realizing, accepting and resolving these situations in the course of joint activities of students and teachers, with optimal independence of the former and under the general guiding guidance of the latter, as well as in mastering by students in the process of such activities generalized knowledge and general principles of solution problematic tasks. The principle of problematicity brings the learning process closer to the processes of cognition, research, creative thinking (Makhmutov M.I., 1975; abstract).
Problem-based learning (like any other learning) can contribute to the realization of two goals:
First goal- to form the necessary system of knowledge, abilities and skills among students.
Second goal- to achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, the development of the ability to self-study, self-education.
Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs in the course of an active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks by them.
It is important to note one more of the important goals of problem learning - to form a special style of thinking - the most generalized and mediated form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. Thinking is the highest level of human knowledge. It allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the real world that cannot be directly perceived at the sensory level of cognition. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its course are studied by psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking in connection with the tasks of modeling some mental functions. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> mental activity, research activity and student independence ().
The peculiarity of problem-based learning is that it seeks to maximize the use of psychology data on the close relationship between the processes of learning (learning), cognition, research and thinking. From this point of view, the learning process should simulate the process of productive thinking, the central link of which is the possibility of discovery, the possibility of creativity (Ponomarev Ya.A., 1999; abstract).
Essence Problematic learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. It sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive in nature; 2) the method of active interaction of the subject with the problematic presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their resolution, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem learning boils down to the fact that in the learning process, the nature and structure of the student's cognitive activity radically changes, leading to the development of the creative potential of the student's personality. The main and characteristic feature of problem learning is a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain learning situation by the objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the cognitive task that has arisen. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem situation .

• Its creation is based on the following provisions of modern psychology:
  • the process of thinking has its source in a problem situation;
  • problem thinking is carried out primarily as a process of solving a problem;
  • the conditions for the development of thinking is the acquisition of new knowledge by solving a problem;
  • patterns of thinking and patterns of assimilation of new knowledge largely coincide.

In problem learning, the teacher creates a problem situation, directs students to solve it, organizes the search for a solution. Thus, the student is placed in the position of the subject of his learning, and as a result, new knowledge is formed in him, he has new ways of action. The difficulty in managing problem learning is that the emergence of a problem situation is an individual act, therefore, the teacher is required to use a differentiated and individual approach. If in traditional teaching the teacher expounds theoretical propositions in a ready-made form, then in problem-based teaching he brings the students to a contradiction and invites them to find a way to solve it themselves, collides the contradictions of practical activity, expounds different points of view on the same issue (Razvitie ..., 1991 ; annotation). Typical tasks of problem learning: consider the phenomenon from different positions, make a comparison, generalization, formulate conclusions from the situation, compare facts, formulate specific questions themselves (for generalization, justification, concretization, logic of reasoning) (Fig. 6).
Let's look at an example. 6th grade students are not familiar with the concept of verb types. All other grammatical features of the verb (number, tense, transitivity, etc.) are known to them. The teacher draws the students' attention to the blackboard, where the verbs are written in two columns with multi-colored crayons:

At the first acquaintance with these verbs, students see inconsistencies between species pairs.
Question. What is the grammatical basis for the verbs of the first and second columns?
The wording The problem is the awareness of the possibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problems clarifies the nature of the difficulty of students, which arose when faced with a problem. Attempts by students to explain the difference in verbs on the basis of actualizing previously acquired knowledge do not achieve the goal. In the future, the relationship between data items and goals is achieved by analyzing and explaining the data, i.e. the actual linguistic (grammatical) material contained in the examples is analyzed. The goal (the concept of the types of the verb) is gradually revealed in the course of solving the problem.
A number of studies have shown that there is a close relationship between a person's search activity and his health (physical, mental).
People with a poorly developed need for search live less stressful lives, their search activity is expressed only in specific external situations when it is not possible, on the basis of well-developed forms of behavior, to satisfy other needs, both biological, for example, the need for safety and for daily bread, and social, such as the need for prestige. If all the basic desires are satisfied, one can seem to live relaxed and calmly, without particularly striving for anything and, therefore, without risking defeat and infringement. Refusal to search, if the search is not an internal urgent need, is given painlessly and calmly. However, this well-being is imaginary and conditional. It is possible only in ideal conditions of complete comfort. Our dynamic world does not provide such conditions to anyone - and this is quite natural, because the accumulation of people with low search activity in society would inevitably lead to social regression. And in a world where the need constantly arises in search, at least to satisfy primary needs, the absence of the desire for search as such makes existence painful, because you constantly have to make an effort on yourself. The search, without bringing the experience of naturalness and satisfaction, becomes an unpleasant necessity for people with a low need for search and, of course, they succeed much worse than for people with a high need for it. In addition, a person with low activity is less prepared for encounters with life's difficulties and quickly refuses to search for a way out of difficult situations. And although this refusal is subjectively experienced by them not so hard, objectively the body's resistance still decreases. In one of the countries, the fate of people in whose character and behavior was dominated by a feeling of apathy, indifference to life, people with low activity, was traced for a number of years. It turned out that they, on average, die at an earlier age than people who were initially active. And they die from reasons that are not fatal to others. Let us recall Ilya Oblomov, a person with an extremely low need for searching (this need did not develop in him since childhood, because everything was given ready-made). He was quite pleased with life, or rather, his complete isolation from life, and died at a fairly young age for some unknown reason.
The constant lack of search activity leads to the fact that the individual is helpless in any encounter with difficulties or even with situations that in other conditions are not perceived as difficulties. So the low need for searching not only makes life insipid and useless, but also does not guarantee health and longevity.

8.2.3. Problem situations as the basis of problem learning

• Types of problem situations (see Fig. 7), which most often arise in the educational process:
  1. A problematic situation is created when a discrepancy is found between the already existing knowledge systems of students and new requirements (between old knowledge and new facts, between knowledge of a lower and higher level, between everyday and scientific knowledge).
  2. Problem situations arise when there is a need for a diverse choice from the systems of existing knowledge of the only necessary system, the use of which alone can provide the correct solution to the proposed problem problem.
  3. Problem situations arise before students when they are faced with new practical conditions for using existing knowledge, when there is a search for ways to apply knowledge in practice.
  4. A problematic situation arises if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability or inexpediency of the chosen method, as well as between the practically achieved result of completing the task and the lack of theoretical justification.
  5. Problematic situations in solving technical problems arise when there is no direct correspondence between the schematic representation and the design of the technical device.
  6. Problematic situations are also created by the fact that there is an objectively inherent contradiction in the schematic diagrams between the static nature of the images themselves and the need to read dynamic processes in them ().

• Rules for creating problem situations. To create a problem situation, you need the following:
  1. The student should be given such a practical or theoretical task, in the implementation of which he should discover new knowledge or actions to be assimilated. In this case, the following conditions should be observed:
     • the task is based on the knowledge and skills that the student possesses;
     • the unknown that needs to be discovered constitutes a general pattern to be assimilated, a general mode of action, or some general conditions for performing an action;
     • completing a problematic task should cause the student to need assimilated knowledge.
  2. The problem task offered to the student must correspond to his intellectual capabilities.
  3. The problem task should precede the explanation of the learning material to be assimilated.
  4. The following can serve as problem tasks: a) educational tasks; b) questions; c) practical tasks, etc.
     However, one should not mix a problem task and a problem situation - a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain educational situation by the objective insufficiency of the knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity previously acquired by students to solve the cognitive task that has arisen. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> problem situation... A problematic task in itself is not a problem situation; it can cause a problem situation only under certain conditions.
  5. The same problematic situation can be caused by different types of jobs.
  6. The arisen problematic situation should be formulated by the teacher by indicating to the student the reasons for his failure to fulfill the set practical educational task or the impossibility of explaining to them certain demonstrated facts () (Chrest. 8.3).

8.2.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. It sets as its goal the development of heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive in nature; 2) the method of active interaction of the subject with the problematic presented content of education, organized by the teacher, during which he joins the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their resolution, learns to think, creatively assimilate knowledge. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> Problem learning is aimed at an independent search for students of new knowledge and methods of action, and also involves a consistent and purposeful advancement of cognitive problems to students, solving which, under the guidance of a teacher, they actively assimilate new knowledge. Consequently, it provides a special type of thinking, depth of convictions, strength of assimilation of knowledge and their creative application in practice. In addition, it contributes to the formation Motivation to achieve success is one of the types of activity motivation associated with the individual's need to achieve success and avoid failures. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> motivation to achieve success, develops the thinking abilities of students (Heckhausen H., 1986; abstract).
Problem-based learning is less applicable than other types of learning in the formation of practical Skill - the ability to consciously perform a certain action. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> skills and A skill is a way of performing actions that has become automated as a result of exercises. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> skills; it takes a lot of time to assimilate the same amount of knowledge as compared to other types of training.
Thus, explanatory-illustrative teaching does not ensure the effective development of students' thinking abilities because it is based on the laws of reproductive thinking, and not on creative activity.
Despite the highlighted shortcomings, today problem-based learning is the most promising. The fact is that with the development of market relations, all structures of society, to one degree or another, pass from the mode of functioning (which was more characteristic of the Soviet period of the country's development) to the mode of development. Driving force any development is to overcome the corresponding contradictions. And overcoming these contradictions is always associated with certain abilities, which in psychology are usually called Reflection (from late lat. Reflexio - facing back) - 1) reflection, self-observation, self-knowledge; 2) the process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states; 3) as a mechanism of mutual understanding - the subject's understanding by what means and why he made this or that impression on the communication partner; 4) (philosophical) form of theoretical human activity, aimed at understanding their own actions and their laws. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> reflexive abilities... They imply the ability to adequately assess the situation, identify the causes of difficulties and problems in activities (professional, personal), as well as plan and carry out special activities to overcome these difficulties (contradictions). These abilities are among the basic ones for a modern specialist. They are not transmitted by lectures and stories. They are "grown". This means that the educational process must be organized in such a way as to "cultivate" these abilities in future specialists. Consequently, the educational process should simulate the process of the emergence and overcoming of contradictions, but on the educational content. In our opinion, problem-based learning meets these requirements to the greatest extent. The ideas of problem-based learning have been implemented in the systems of Developmental education - a direction in the theory and practice of education, focused on the development of physical, cognitive and moral abilities of students by using their potential. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> developmental education(Chrest. 8.4)
(; see the laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies),
(; see the group of psychology of the development of cognitive processes of PI RAO).

8.3. Programmed learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages

8.3.1. The essence of programmed learning

Programmed learning- This is training according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and a teacher (or a teaching machine replacing him). The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century. American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the effectiveness of the management of the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology. Objectively programmed learning reflects, in relation to the field of education, the close connection of science with practice, the transfer of certain human actions to machines, the growing role of managerial functions in all spheres of social activity. To improve the efficiency of management of the learning process, it is necessary to use the achievements of all sciences related to this process, and above all Cybernetics (from the Greek. Kybernetike - the art of management) - the science of management, communication and information processing. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> cybernetics- science about the general laws of management. Therefore, the development of ideas Programmed learning - learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine replacing him). ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> programmed learning turned out to be associated with the achievements of cybernetics, which sets the general requirements for the management of the learning process. The implementation of these requirements in training programs is based on data from the psychological and pedagogical sciences that study the specific features of the educational process. However, when developing this type of training, some specialists rely on the achievements of only psychological science (one-sided psychological direction), others only on the experience of cybernetics (one-sided cybernetic). In teaching practice, this is a typically empirical direction, in which the development of educational programs is based on practical experience, and only isolated data are taken from cybernetics and psychology.
The general theory of programmed learning is based on the programming of the process of mastering the material. This approach to teaching involves the study of cognitive information in certain doses, which are logically complete, convenient and accessible for holistic perception.
Today under programmed learning is understood as the controlled assimilation of a programmed educational material with the help of a teaching device (computer, programmed textbook, cinematography, etc.)(fig. 8). The programmed material is a series of relatively small portions of educational information ("frames", files, "steps"), presented in a certain logical sequence ().

In programmed teaching, learning is carried out as a clearly controlled process, since the material being studied is divided into small, easily digestible doses. They are consistently presented to the student for assimilation. After the study of each dose, the assimilation is checked. The dose is assimilated - move on to the next one. This is the "step" of learning: presentation, assimilation, verification.
Usually, when compiling training programs, from the cybernetic requirements only the need for systematic feedback was taken into account, from the psychological ones - the individualization of the learning process. There was no sequence in the implementation of a certain model of the assimilation process. The most famous concept of B. Skinner, based on the Behavioral theory - a trend in American psychology of the twentieth century, denying consciousness as an object scientific research and reducing the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the organism to stimuli from the external environment. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> behaviorist theory teachings, according to which there is no significant difference between the teaching of humans and the teaching of animals. In accordance with behaviorist theory, training programs must solve the problem of obtaining and reinforcing the correct response. To develop the correct reaction, the principle of breaking down the process into small steps and the principle of a prompting system are used. When the process is broken down, the programmed complex behavior is broken down into the simplest elements (steps), each of which the student could perform without error. When a system of prompts is included in the training program, the required reaction is first given ready-made (maximum degree of prompting), then with the skipping of individual elements (fading prompts), at the end of the training, a completely independent implementation of the reaction is required (removal of the prompt). An example is memorizing a poem: first, the quatrain is given in full, then - with the omission of one word, two words and a whole line. At the end of memorization, the student, having received four lines of dots instead of a quatrain, must reproduce the poem on his own.
To consolidate the reaction, the principle of immediate reinforcement (with the help of verbal encouragement, presentation of a sample to make sure the answer is correct, etc.) of each correct step is used, as well as the principle of repeated repetition of reactions.
(Model; see the website of the School of Tomorrow),
(; see the material "What is School of Tomorrow?").

8.3.2. Types of tutorials

Behavioral training programs are subdivided into: a) linear, developed by Skinner, and b) ramified programs of N. Crowder.
1. Linear programmed learning system, originally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner in the early 60s. XX century. based on the behavioral trend in psychology.

• He put forward the following requirements for the organization of training:
  • In teaching, the student must go through a sequence of carefully selected and placed "steps".
  • Education should be structured in such a way that the student is "busy and busy" all the time, so that he not only perceives the teaching material, but also operates on it.
  • Before moving on to the study of the following material, the student should have a good understanding of the previous one.
  • The student needs to be helped by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), by prompting, prompting, etc.
  • Each student's correct answer needs to be reinforced using feedback, not only to shape certain behaviors, but also to maintain interest in learning.

According to this system, students go through all the steps of the training program sequentially, in the order in which they are given in the program. The tasks in each step are to fill in a gap in the informational text with one or more words. After that, the student must check his solution with the correct one, which was previously closed in some way. If the student's answer turned out to be correct, then he must proceed to the next step; if his answer does not coincide with the correct one, then he must complete the task again. Thus, the linear programmed teaching system is based on the teaching principle, which assumes error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the steps of the program and assignments are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the learner learns mainly by completing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of the task fulfillment serves as a reinforcement to stimulate the student's further activity (see animation).
Linear programs are designed for the error-free steps of all students, i.e. must match the capabilities of the weakest of them. Due to this, the correction of programs is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must go through the same steps, i.e. move along the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).
2. An extensive program of programmed learning... Its founder is the American teacher N. Crowder. In these programs, which have become widespread, in addition to the main program designed for strong students, additional programs (auxiliary branches) are provided, to one of which the student is sent in case of difficulty. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training, not only in terms of the pace of advancement, but also in terms of the level of difficulty. In addition, these programs open up greater opportunities for the formation of rational types of cognitive activity than linear ones, limiting cognitive activity mainly by perception and memory.
Control tasks in the steps of this system consist of a task or question and a set of several answers, including usually one correct, and the rest incorrect, containing typical errors. The student must choose one answer from this set. If he chose the correct answer, then he receives reinforcement in the form of confirmation of the correct answer and an instruction to proceed to the next step of the program. If he chose the wrong answer, the essence of the mistake is explained to him, and he is instructed to return to some of the previous steps of the program or to go to some subroutine.
In addition to these two main systems of programmed learning, many others have been developed that, to one degree or another, use a linear or branched principle, or both of these principles, to construct a sequence of steps in a training program.
A general drawback of programs based on behaviorism (from the English behavior, biheviour - behavior) is a trend in American psychology of the twentieth century, which denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the organism to stimuli from the external environment. The trend in psychology, which was initiated by the article by the American psychologist J. Watson "s =" "r =" "xx =" "onmouseout =" nd (); "href =" javascript: void (0); "> behavioristic basis, lies in the impossibility of managing the internal, mental activity of students, control over which is limited to the registration of the final result (response). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs carry out control according to the "black box" principle, which in relation to human training is unproductive, since the main goal in training is to form rational methods of cognitive activity. This means that it is not only the responses that need to be controlled, but the pathways leading to them. Practice Programmed learning - learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine replacing him). ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> programmed learning showed the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements to the training programs within the framework of the behavioral learning model did not lead to significant improvement in results.

8.3.3. Development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice

In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed teaching were actively studied, and achievements were introduced in practice in the 70s. XX century. One of the leading specialists is Professor of Moscow University Nina Fedorovna Talyzina ( Talyzina N.F. Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge. - M .: Moscow State University, 1983. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> Talyzina N.F., 1969; 1975). In the domestic version, this type of teaching is based on the so-called Theory of the gradual formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts in a person, put forward by P.Ya. Galperin. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> the theory of the phased formation of mental actions and the concepts of P.Ya. Galperin (Galperin P.Ya., 1998; abstract) and theories Cybernetics (from the Greek. Kybernetike - the art of management) - the science of management, communication and information processing. ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> cybernetics... The implementation of programmed learning presupposes the allocation of specific and logical methods of thinking for each studied subject, the indication of rational methods of cognitive activity in general. Only after this is it possible to draw up training programs that are aimed at the formation of these types of cognitive activity, and through them, the knowledge that constitutes the content of this academic subject.

8.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of programmed learning

Programming training has a number of advantages: small doses are easily assimilated, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, a high result is provided, rational methods of mental actions are developed, the ability to think logically is brought up. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example:
• does not fully contribute to the development of independence in learning;
• time consuming;
• applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive tasks;
• ensures the acquisition of knowledge inherent in the algorithm and does not contribute to the acquisition of new ones. At the same time, excessive algorithmic learning prevents the formation of productive cognitive activity.

• During the years of greatest passion for programmed learning - 60-70s. XX century. - a number of programming systems and many different teaching machines and devices were developed. But at the same time, critics of programmed learning emerged. E. Labin summarized all the objections to programmed learning as follows:
  • programmed learning does not use the positive aspects of group learning;
  • it does not contribute to the development of students' initiative, since the program seems to be leading him by the hand all the time;
  • with the help of programmed learning, you can teach only simple material at the level of cramming;
  • Reinforcement learning theory is worse than intellectual gymnastics;
  • contrary to the statements of some American researchers - programmed learning is not revolutionary, but conservative, since it is bookish and verbal;
  • programmed learning ignores the achievements of psychology, which has been studying the structure of brain activity and the dynamics of assimilation for more than 20 years;
  • programmed teaching does not provide an opportunity to get a complete picture of the subject being studied and is "learning in crumbs" ().

Although not all of these objections are entirely valid, they are undoubtedly well founded. Therefore, interest in programmed learning in the 70-80s. XX century. began to fall and its revival took place in recent years on the basis of the use of new generations of computer technology.
As already noted, the most common various systems Programmed learning - learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine replacing him). ");" onmouseout = "nd ();" href = "javascript: void (0);"> programmed learning received in the 50-60s. XX century, later they began to use only certain elements of programmed teaching, mainly for the control of knowledge, consultation and training of skills. In recent years, the ideas of programmed learning began to revive on a new technical basis (computers, television systems, microcomputers, etc.) in the form of computer, or electronic, learning. The new technical base makes it possible to almost completely automate the learning process, to build it as a fairly free dialogue between the student and the training system. The role of the teacher in this case consists mainly in the development, adjustment, correction and improvement of the training program, as well as in the implementation of individual elements of machine-less learning. Many years of experience have confirmed that programmed learning, and especially computer-based, provides sufficient high level not only learning, but also the development of students, arouses their unremitting interest.

*******

In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory and illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of them, as already mentioned, has both positive and negative sides. Traditional teaching does not provide for the effective development of students' thinking abilities because it is based on the laws of reproductive thinking, and not on creative activity.
Today the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problem learning.

Summary

• In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory and illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative aspects.
• The traditional type of education is the most common today. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Komensky ("The Great Didactics").
  • The term "traditional education" implies, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that took shape in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and is still prevalent in the schools of the world.
  • Traditional education has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore of the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the "foundations of the sciences", and the orientation of the subject of the teaching on the future content of professional and practical activity and of the entire culture.
• Today the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problem learning.
  • Problem-based learning is usually understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.
  • In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. known two bases of the concept of problem learning (J. Dewey, W. Burton).
  • Dewey's pedocentric concept had a great influence on the general nature of the teaching and educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called complex programs and in the project method.
  • The theory of problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century. in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, and develop the independence of the student.
  • The basis of problem learning is a problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of a student that arises in the process of completing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for its implementation.
• Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).
  • The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century. American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the effectiveness of the management of the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology.
  • The training programs built on a behavioristic basis are subdivided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs of N. Crowder.
  • In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed teaching were actively studied, and the learning achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century. One of the leading experts in this field is Professor of Moscow University N.F. Talyzin.

Glossary of terms

1. Cybernetics
2. Classroom teaching system
3. The motive for success
4. Tutorial
5. Problem
6. Problem situation
7. Problem learning
8. Programmed learning
9. Contradiction
10. Traditional teaching

Self-test questions

1. What is the essence of traditional learning?
2. What are the distinguishing features of the traditional classroom teaching technology?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of traditional teaching.
4. What are the main contradictions of traditional education?
5. Indicate the main historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
6. What are the features of the problematic nature of J. Dewey's training?
7. What is typical for the development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice?
8. What is the essence of problem learning?
9. Name the types of problem situations that most often arise in the educational process.
10. When do problem situations arise?
11. What are the basic rules for creating problem situations in the educational process?
12. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of problem learning?
13. What is the essence of programmed learning?
14. Who is the author of programmed learning?
15. Give a description of the types of training programs.
16. What are the features of branched programmed learning programs?
17. What is characteristic of the behavioral approach to programmed learning?
18. What is typical for the development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice?
19. Why hasn't programmed learning been properly developed?

Bibliography

1. Atkinson R. Human memory and learning process: Per. from English M., 1980.
2. Burton V. Principles of training and its organization. M., 1934.
3. Bruner J. Psychology of knowledge. M., 1977.
4. Verbitsky A.A. Active Learning in Graduate School: A Contextual Approach. M., 1991.
5. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.
6. Galperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development of the child. M., 1985.
7. Gurova L.L. Psychological analysis of problem solving. Voronezh, 1976.
8. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning theory. M., 1996.
9. Dewey J. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking (How we think): Per. from English M., 1999.
10. Komensky Ya.A. Selected pedagogical essays. M., 1955.
11. T.V. Kudryavtsev Psychology of creative thinking. M., 1975.
12. Kuliutkin Yu.N. Heuristic methods in decision structure. M., 1970.
13. Lerner I. Ya. Problem learning. M., 1974.
14. Lipkina A.I. Self-esteem of the student and his memory // Vopr. psychology. 1981. No. 3.
15. Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of motivation for learning. M., 1990.
16. Matyushkin A.M. Problem situations in thinking and learning. M., 1972.
17. Makhmutov M.I. Problem learning. M., 1975.
18. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics: Per. from Polish M., 1990.
19. Okon V. Fundamentals of problem-based learning. M., 1968.
20. Ponomarev Ya.A. Psychology of creation. M .; Voronezh, 1999.
21. Development of creative activity of schoolchildren / Ed. A.M. Matyushkina. M., 1991.
22. Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies: Textbook. allowance. M., 1998.
23. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. M., 1969.
24. Talyzina N.F. Management of the process of assimilation of knowledge. M., 1975.
25. Unt I.E. Individualization and differentiation of training. M., 1990.
26. Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: In 2 volumes. M., 1986.Vol. 1, 2.

Topics of term papers and abstracts

1. The essence of traditional learning.
2. The main contradictions of traditional education.
3. Historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
4. J. Dewey's problem learning.
5. Development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice.
6. The essence of problem learning.
7. Problem situations as the basis of problem learning.
8. Programmed learning: advantages and disadvantages.
9. Types of training programs.
10. A behavioral approach to programmed learning.
11. Development of programmed teaching in domestic science and practice.

Number of hours: 2

Issues for discussion:

1. Traditional teaching: essence, advantages and disadvantages.

2. Problematic learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages.

3. Programmed learning: essence, advantages and disadvantages

Comments:

In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of teaching: traditional (or explanatory and illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative aspects.

The traditional type of education is the most common today. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Komensky ("The Great Didactics").

The term "traditional education" implies, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that took shape in the 17th century. on the principles of didactics formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and is still prevalent in the schools of the world.

Traditional education has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the main ones is the contradiction between the orientation of the content of educational activity (and therefore of the student himself) to the past, objectified in the sign systems of the "foundations of the sciences", and the orientation of the subject of the teaching on the future content of professional and practical activity and of the entire culture.

Today the most promising and appropriate socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problem learning.

Problem-based learning is usually understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them.

In American pedagogy at the beginning of the 20th century. known two bases of the concept of problem learning (J. Dewey, W. Burton).

Dewey's pedocentric concept had a great influence on the general nature of the teaching and educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 1920s, which found its expression in the so-called complex programs and in the project method.

The theory of problem-based learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century. in connection with the search for ways to activate, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, and develop the independence of the student.

The basis of problem learning is a problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of a student that arises in the process of completing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for its implementation.

Programmed learning is learning according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both the students and the teacher (or a teaching machine that replaces him).

The idea of ​​programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XX century. American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the effectiveness of the management of the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology.

The training programs built on a behavioristic basis are subdivided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs of N. Crowder.

In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed teaching were actively studied, and the learning achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century. One of the leading experts in this field is Professor of Moscow University N.F. Talyzin.

Glossary of terms: success motive, training program, problem, problem situation, problem learning, programmed learning, traditional learning.

Questions for self-test:

1. What is the essence of traditional education?

2. What are the distinctive features of the traditional classroom teaching technology.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of traditional teaching.

4. What are the main contradictions of traditional education?

5. Indicate the main historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.

6. What is typical for the development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice?

7. What is the essence of problem learning?

8. Name the types of problem situations that most often arise in the educational process.

9. When do problem situations arise?

10. What are the basic rules for creating problem situations in the educational process.

11. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning?

12. What is the essence of programmed learning?

13. Give a description of the types of training programs.

14. What are the features of branched programmed learning programs?

Literature:

1. Verbitsky, A.A. Active learning in higher school: contextual approach / A.A. Verbitsky. - M., 1991.

2. Vygotsky, L.S. Educational psychology / L.S. Vygotsky. - M., 1996.

3. Davydov, V.V. Theory of developing education / V.V. Davydov. - M., 1996.

4. Okon, V. Fundamentals of problem learning / V. Okon. - M., 1968.

5. Ponomarev, Ya.A. Psychology of creation / Ya.A. Ponomarev. - M., 1999.

6. Development of creative activity of schoolchildren / ed. A.M. Matyushkina - M., 1991.

7. Selevko, G.K. Modern educational technologies: textbook. Allowance / G.K. Selevko. - M., 1998.

Topics of term papers and abstracts:

1. The essence of traditional learning.

2. The main contradictions of traditional education.

3. Historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.

4. Problematic learning J. Dewey.

5. Development of problem-based learning in domestic science and practice.

6. The essence of problem learning.

7. Problem situations as the basis of problem learning.

8. Programmed learning: advantages and disadvantages.

9. Types of training programs.

10. Behavioral approach to programmed learning.

11. Development of programmed teaching in domestic science and practice.