Living environment. Hazards in the working and living environment Hazards in the domestic and living environment
As defined by WHO, the concept dwellings is not limited to the walls of the building, it goes beyond it and includes the adjoining territory, microdistrict, residential area with all service establishments. Thus, the intra-dwelling and urban environments, which are closely related and interdependent, form the system "person - living cell - building - microdistrict - residential area of the city", called the domestic (residential) environment.
Household (residential) environment characterized by:
Artificiality created by human activity;
An expanded number of people's needs (labor, social activities, study and self-education, cultural development, entertainment, health and sports recreation);
The creation of new structures and communications that ensure the satisfaction of the present and future needs of people;
Continuous dynamism of the environment, its variability, giving rise to new problems, positive and negative factors.
In everyday life we are accompanied by a wide range of negative factors: products of natural gas combustion, emissions from thermal power plants, industrial enterprises, vehicles, waste incineration devices; water with an excessive content of harmful impurities; poor quality food; noise, ultrasound, vibration, electromagnetic field from synthetic materials, household appliances, televisions, displays, power lines, radio relay devices; ionizing radiation in the form of a natural background, from a medical examination, from building materials, appliances and household items; medicines in case of excessive and incorrect use; alcohol, tobacco smoke, bacteria, allergens, etc.
According to the degree of danger, the factors of the household environment can be divided into two main groups:
Factors that are the actual causes of diseases;
Factors that are conditions for the development of diseases caused by other causes.
In most cases, the factors of the domestic environment are of low intensity. They serve as conditions for the emergence of a number of diseases, and this is their danger.
In addition, the adverse effects of the living environment on human health are manifested in a complex manner, they are characterized by synergy- strengthening of the mutual action of factors on the body, which makes it difficult to assess the quality of the living environment.
Noise pollution of the habitat Is physical pollution environment, adaptation to which is almost impossible. In cities, the levels of industrial and traffic noise increase every 5-10 years by an average of 5-10 dB. Infrasounds, which penetrate the thickest walls and cause many nervous diseases of city dwellers, are of great danger.
Artificial electromagnetic radiation is many times higher than the average levels of natural fields. Sources of EMF are radio transmitting devices, power lines and other devices. EMFs disrupt the physical functions of a living organism, they are especially dangerous for embryos.
The energy level of natural factors is practically stable, while anthropogenic factors are characterized by a continuous increase in their energy indicators.
Question 26. Life safety and living (household) environment
The modern concept of a residential (household) environment
The main groups of negative factors of the living environment
Sources of chemical pollution of the air environment of residential premises and their hygienic characteristics
The impact of chemical pollution of the residential environment on human health and ways to improve the chemical composition of the air in residential and public buildings
Hygienic value and provision of a favorable light environment for a modern home
Sources of noise in the residential environment and measures to protect the population from its adverse effects
Hygienic characteristics of vibration in a residential environment
Electromagnetic fields as a negative factor in residential and public buildings and their impact on public health
The close relationship between the residential and urban environment predetermines the need to consider the system "person - residential cell - building - microdistrict - residential area of the city" as a single complex (called the residential (household) environment).
Residential (household) environment - it is a set of conditions and factors that allow a person to exercise their non-production activity.
At present, the term "living environment" denotes a complex system in which three hierarchically interrelated levels are objectively identified.
First level. The living environment is primarily shaped by specific houses. However, at the level of the urban environment, not individual buildings should be considered as the main object of research, but a system of structures and urban spaces that form a single urban development complex - a residential area (streets, courtyards, parks, schools, public service centers).
Second level. The elements of the system here are individual town-planning complexes, in which labor, consumer and recreational ties of the population are realized. The unit of the "urban organism" can be a certain region of the city. The criterion for the integrity of the system of this type of relationship is the closed cycle "work - life - rest".
Third level. At this level, individual regions of the city act as elements comparable to each other in terms of the quality of the living environment.
The adaptation of the human body to the living environment in a large city cannot be unlimited. The main feature of all the adverse effects of the living environment on human health is their complexity.
Living environment factors according to the degree of danger, they can be divided into two main groups: factors that are the actual causes of diseases and factors that contribute to the development of diseases caused by other causes.
In most cases, the factors of the living environment are of low intensity. In practice, this manifests itself in an increase in the overall morbidity of the population under the influence, for example, of unfavorable living conditions.
In the living environment, there are a small number of factors (for example, asbestos, formaldehyde, allergens, benzopyrene) that can be attributed to the group of “absolute” causes of diseases. Most of the factors of the living environment, by their nature, are less pathogenic. For example, chemical, microbial, dust pollution of indoor air. As a rule, in residential and public buildings, these factors create conditions for the development of diseases. At the same time, in certain extreme cases, they are capable of acquiring properties characteristic of factors - causes of diseases, which makes it possible to class them as “relative” conditions for the development of diseases.
State acts of economic and social development in the field of urban planning in force in the Russian Federation are aimed at implementing a strategy for improving the quality of the living environment.
A special air environment is formed in buildings, which depends on the state of the atmospheric air and the power of internal sources of pollution.
Main sources of pollution indoor air conditionally are subdivided into four groups:
substances entering the room with polluted atmospheric air;
degradation products of polymeric materials;
anthropotoxins;
combustion products of domestic gas and household activities;
In the air of the living environment, about 100 chemicals have been found belonging to various classes of chemical compounds. The quality of the indoor air in terms of chemical composition largely depends on the quality of the surrounding atmospheric air. The migration of dust, toxic substances contained in the atmospheric air into the internal environment of the premises is due to their natural and artificial ventilation, and therefore the substances present in the outside air are found in the premises, and even in those that are supplied with air that has been processed in the air conditioning system ...
One of the most powerful internal sources of indoor air pollution is construction and finishing materials made of polymers. In construction, the range of polymeric materials includes about 100 items. The scale and feasibility of using polymeric materials in the construction of residential and public buildings are determined by a number of positive properties that facilitate their use, improve the quality of construction, and make it cheaper. However, research results show that almost all polymeric materials emit certain toxic substances into the air. chemical substances that have a harmful effect on the health of the population.
Intensity emission of volatile substances depends on the operating conditions of polymeric materials - temperature, humidity, air exchange rate, operating time.
Chemical substances released from polymeric materials, even in small quantities, can cause significant disturbances in the state of a living organism, for example, in the case of allergic effects of polymeric materials.
The increased sensitivity of patients to the effects of chemicals released from plastics was established in comparison with healthy ones. Studies have shown that in rooms with high polymer saturation, the population's susceptibility to allergic diseases, colds, neurasthenia, vegetative dystonia, and hypertension turned out to be higher than in rooms where polymer materials were used in smaller quantities.
To ensure the safety of the use of polymeric materials, it is assumed that the concentration of volatile substances released from polymers in residential and public buildings should not exceed their MPCs established for atmospheric air, and the total ratio of the detected concentrations of several substances to their MPCs should not be higher than one.
A powerful internal source of indoor pollution is also human waste products - anthropotoxins.
In the process of life, a person releases about 400 chemical compounds.
The air environment in unventilated premises deteriorates in proportion to the number of persons and the time spent in the premises. Chemical analysis of indoor air made it possible to identify a number of toxic substances in them, the distribution of which according to hazard classes is as follows: dimethylamine, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, ethylene oxide, benzene (hazard class II - highly hazardous substances); acetic acid, phenol, methylstyrene, toluene, methanol, vinyl acetate (III hazard class - low-hazard substances). One fifth of the identified anthropotoxins are highly hazardous substances. Staying people in unventilated rooms for 2-4 hours negatively affects their mental performance.
The study air environment of gasified premises showed that during the hourly burning of gas in the air of the premises, the concentration of substances was (mg / m 3): carbon monoxide - on average 15, formaldehyde - 0.037, nitrogen oxide - 0.62, nitrogen dioxide - 0.44, benzene - 0.07 ... The air temperature in the room during the combustion of the gas increased by 3-6 0 С, the humidity increased by 10-15%. After turning off the gas appliances, the content of carbon monoxide and other chemical substances in the air decreased, but sometimes it did not return to its original values even after 1.5-2.5 hours.
The study of the effect of combustion products of household gas on the external respiration of a person revealed an increase in the load on the respiratory system and a decrease in the functional state of the central nervous system.
One of the most common sources of indoor air pollution is smoking. Spectral analysis of air polluted with tobacco smoke revealed 186 chemical compounds.
Chemical pollution of the air environment of residential and public buildings under certain conditions (poor ventilation, excessive saturation of premises with polymer materials, a large crowd of people, etc.) can reach a level that has a negative impact on the general state of the human body.
In recent years, according to WHO, there has been a significant increase in the number of reports of the so-called "sick buildings" syndrome. The described symptoms of deterioration in the health of people living or working in such buildings are very diverse, but they also have a number common features, namely: headaches, mental fatigue, increased frequency of airborne infections and colds, irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, pharynx, a feeling of dryness of the mucous membranes and skin, nausea, dizziness. Providing an optimal air environment for residential and public buildings is an important hygienic and engineering problem. The leading link in solving this problem is the air exchange of the premises, which provides the required parameters of the air environment. When designing air conditioning systems in residential and public buildings, the required air supply rate is calculated in a volume sufficient to assimilate human heat and moisture, exhaled carbon dioxide, and in rooms intended for smoking, the need to remove tobacco smoke is also taken into account.
The limited transparency of the glazing of light openings, their shading, and often the discrepancy between the size of the window area and the depth of the premises cause an increased deficit of natural light in the premises. Lack of natural light worsens the conditions of visual work and creates the preconditions for the development of the syndrome of "solar (or light) starvation" in the urban population, which reduces the body's resistance to the effects of adverse factors of chemical, physical and bacterial nature, and, according to recent data, to stressful situations. Therefore, the deficit of natural light is attributed to factors that are unfavorable for human life.
Natural light and sun exposure... In accordance with the requirements of SN and P 23-05-95 “Natural and artificial lighting. Design standards "the value of the natural lighting coefficient (c.u.) for the main premises of residential buildings (rooms and kitchens) in the middle climatic zone is set at least 0.4% for areas with a stable snow cover and at least 0.5% - for the rest of the territory.
Along with the general biological effect, natural lighting has a pronounced psychological effect on the human body. Free eye contact with the outside world through light openings of sufficient size and the variability of daylight (fluctuations in intensity, uniformity, brightness ratios, chromaticity of light throughout the day) have a great impact on the human psyche.
Insolation - this is an important hygienic factor. It ensures the supply of additional energy (light), heat and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun into the room, affects the well-being and mood of a person, the microclimate of the home and a decrease in its contamination by microorganisms.
Artificial lighting of premises in residential buildings. The main hygienic requirements for artificial lighting in everyday life are reduced to ensuring that the lighting of the interiors corresponds to their purpose: there was enough light (it should not dazzle and have any other adverse effect on humans and the environment); lighting fixtures were easy to operate and safe, and their location facilitated functional zoning of dwellings; the choice of light sources is made taking into account the perception of the color scheme of the interior, the spectral composition of light and the beneficial biological effect of the light flux.
Combined lighting. The lack of natural lighting in a number of residential and public buildings requires a comprehensive solution to the problem of its replenishment with artificial lighting, in particular with the help of a combined lighting system.
Existing noise sources in urban living environments can be divided into two main groups: located in free space (outside buildings) and located inside buildings.
Free-space noise sources by their nature they are divided into mobile and stationary, i.e. permanently or permanently installed in any place.
For noise sources located inside buildings, the nature of the placement of noise sources in relation to the surrounding protected objects and their compliance with the requirements for them are important. Internal noise sources can be divided into several groups:
technical equipment of buildings (elevators, transformer substations, etc.);
technological equipment of buildings (freezers of shops, machinery of small workshops, etc.);
sanitary equipment of buildings (water supply networks, toilet flush taps, showers, etc.);
household appliances (refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, mixers, washing machines, etc.);
music reproduction equipment, radios, televisions and musical instruments.
Effect of noise on the body. Exposure to noise can trigger the following bodily reactions:
organic hearing disorder;
functional disorder of neurohumoral regulation;
functional disorder of motor function and sense function;
disorder of emotional balance.
The general reaction of the population to noise exposure is a feeling of irritation. A negatively influencing sound can cause irritation, turning into psychoemotional stress, which can lead to mental and physical pathological changes in the human body.
The subjective reaction of a person to noise exposure depends on the degree of mental and physical stress, age, gender, health status, duration of influence and noise level.
Human exposure to noise can be roughly subdivided into:
specific(auditory) - the effect on the auditory analyzer, which is expressed in auditory fatigue, short-term or permanent hearing loss, disorders of speech clarity and perception of acoustic signals;
systemic(non-auditory) - the impact on individual systems and the body as a whole (on morbidity, sleep, psyche).
Under the influence of noise, the indicators of information processing change in people, the rate decreases and the quality of the work performed worsens.
To reduce noise in a residential area, the following principles must be observed:
place low-rise buildings near the noise source;
build noise protection facilities parallel to the transport highway;
group residential properties into remote or protected neighborhoods;
buildings that do not require noise protection (warehouses, garages, some workshops, etc.) should be used as barriers to limit the propagation of noise;
Shielding objects used to combat noise should be located as close as possible to its source, and the continuity of such objects along their entire length, their height and width is of great importance;
The surface of the noise barriers facing the source should be made, if possible, of sound-absorbing material.
Vibration as a factor of the human environment, along with noise, it belongs to one of the types of its physical pollution, contributing to the deterioration of the living conditions of the urban population.
With long-term residence of people in the zone of exposure to vibration from transport sources, the level of which exceeds the standard value, its adverse effect on well-being, the functional state of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, and an increase in the level of nonspecific morbidity are noted.
The influence of vibration on the human body. Vibration in a residential environment can act around the clock, causing irritation, disrupting a person's rest and sleep. Subjective perception of vibration depends not only on its parameters, but also on many other factors: state of health, fitness of the body, individual tolerance, emotional stability, neuropsychic status of the subject, exposed to vibration. The method of vibration transmission, the duration of the exposure and pauses are also important.
Measure of assessment the perception of vibration is the concept of "strength of perception", which is a link between the magnitude of vibrations, their frequencies and direction, on the one hand, and the perception of vibration, on the other.
There are three degrees of human response to vibration.: perception by a seated person of sinusoidal vertical oscillations; discomfort; the limit of voluntarily tolerated vibration for 5-20 minutes.
Hygienic regulation of vibration in a home. The most important direction in solving the problem of limiting the adverse effects of vibration in living conditions is the hygienic regulation of its permissible effects. When determining the limit values of vibration for various conditions of a person's stay, the main value is used vibration sensing threshold. Limit values are given as a multiple of this threshold of sensation. At night in residential premises, only one or four times the threshold of sensation is allowed, during the day - two times.
Electromagnetic pollution of the environment in populated areas has become so significant that WHO has included this problem among the most urgent for humans. There is a huge number of various sources of electromagnetic fields (EMF) located both outside residential and public buildings (power lines, satellite communication stations, radio relay installations, television transmission centers, open switchgears, electric vehicles, etc.), and indoors ( computers, cell and radiotelephones, household, microwave ovens, etc.).
The human body in the EMF absorbs its energy, high-frequency currents arise in the tissues with the formation thermal effect. The biological effect of electromagnetic radiation depends on the wavelength, field strength (or energy flux density), duration and mode of exposure (p constant, impulse). The higher the field power, the shorter the wavelength and the longer the irradiation time, the stronger the negative effect of EMF on the body. When a person is exposed to a low-intensity EMF, there are disturbances in electrophysiological processes in the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, functions of the thyroid gland, the "pituitary - adrenal cortex" system, and the generative function of the body.
To prevent the adverse effects of EMF on the population, maximum permissible levels (MPL) of EMF intensity, kv / m, have been established:
inside residential buildings - 0.5;
on the territory of the residential area - 1.0;
in uninhabited areas outside the residential area - 10;
in hard-to-reach areas (not accessible for transport and agricultural machinery) - 20.
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household trace element metal hazard
Today, a city person spends most of his life in an artificial environment. The discrepancy between the human body and the living or working environment is felt as psychological discomfort. Moving away from nature increases the tension of the body's functions, and the use of more and more diverse artificial materials, household chemicals and equipment is accompanied by an increase in the number of sources of negative factors and an increase in their energy level.
The household environment is a combination of factors and elements that affect a person in everyday life. The elements of the household environment include all factors related to:
with the arrangement of housing, its type, used building materials, construction of parts of the house, internal layout, composition of premises and their sizes; insolation and lighting; microclimate and heating; air cleanliness and ventilation, sanitary condition, location of housing in relation to transport routes and industrial zones;
using polymer building materials, furniture, carpets, coatings, clothing made of synthetic fibers, which are a source of harmful chemicals;
using household appliances: TVs, gas, electric and microwave ovens, washing machines, hair dryers and others;
with education and upbringing, with the social status of the family, material security, psychological environment in everyday life.
Housing should be called ecological, together with adjacent areas that form a favorable living environment (microclimate, protection from noise and pollution, harmlessness of materials in construction, etc.), do not make negative impacts on the urban and natural environment, economically use energy and provide communication with nature.
Modern housing cannot yet be called ecological because with construction and finishing materials, furniture and equipment, physical and chemical factors harmful to the body are introduced, ventilation systems do not meet the requirements for air purification of apartments, noise and microclimate are disturbed, and very large heat losses of houses. An unfavorable microclimate and a tense psychological environment are formed near large houses.
All factors of the household environment can be divided into physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological. The identification of negative factors in the domestic environment is difficult through their complex influence in all its spheres.
The concentration of pollutants in indoor air is tens and hundreds of times higher than outdoors. The most significant contamination is formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a pungent unpleasant odor that is part of synthetic materials and is emitted by various things: furniture, carpets and synthetic flooring, plywood, and foam. Furniture is made most often from thyrsoplite; formaldehyde is included in their connecting mass. Synthetic materials also emit vinyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, acetone and many other compounds, mixing to form even more toxic substances.
The presence of formaldehyde can irritate the mucous membranes of the eyes, throat, upper respiratory tract, as well as headaches and nausea. Furniture contributes to about 70% of the air pollution in the living space; dangerous concentrations of toxic gases accumulate in closed cabinets and drawers.
Dangerous emissions from synthetic materials occur during fires. Plexiglas and foam rubber, for example, when burning, intensively emit hydrocyanic acid, phosgene and other strong poisons. Burning synthetic materials in everyday life is unacceptable.
Varnishes and paints contain toxic substances that are characterized by both general toxic and specific types of action - allergenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic and others. Special control is established over the use of new polymeric materials approved for use by the sanitary service.
Hazardous factors in the working environment, hazardous in everyday life. Fire and explosive substances require careful handling: solvents, acetone, gasoline, as well as pesticides for fighting insects - insecticides, with weeds - herbicides, with plant diseases - fungicides.
They must be used with strict adherence to regulations and safety measures, guided by the current instructions on packages, labels and leaflets. Yes, the penetration of chlorophos, karbofos and other similar substances into the human body leads to the deactivation of choline esterase, an important enzyme of the nervous system. The use of household pesticides in closed rooms without protective equipment is life-threatening.
Various detergents and synthetic substances that clean, irritate the skin and can cause allergic reactions if their vapors and powders are inhaled. Acidic and alkaline household preparations, entail a pronounced local effect on the skin and mucous membranes.
The danger is posed by gas equipment through a possible source of natural gas, which has explosive and toxic properties. The presence of carbon and nitrogen oxides from the combustion of this fuel leads to a reduction in lung volume (especially in children) and an increased susceptibility to acute respiratory infections. Gas equipment can only be used with good ventilation of the room.
The susceptibility to infections increases due to the inhalation of vapors of varnishes, paints, chemical solvents and their aerosols. It is harmful to inhale tobacco smoke. In the United States, it is estimated that 500 to 5,000 deaths each year are directly attributable to secondhand smoke, which is the intake of tobacco smoke by non-smokers.
A person in a household environment is affected by electric fields from electrical wiring, electrical appliances, lighting devices, microwave ovens and televisions. In a color TV, electrons are accelerated by a voltage of 25 kV; when they are decelerated, X-rays are excited on the CRT screen. The design of the TV set absorbs most of this radiation, but if you stay near the TV for a long time, you can get a significant dose of radiation. Therefore, it is not advisable to use the TV as a computer display and it is not recommended to be located near the screen.
There are frequent cases of electric shock in everyday life. Electric appliances are environmentally friendly, greatly facilitating domestic work, work on the farm and in the garden area, and increase the comfort of life, subject to the rules of electrical safety. Otherwise, household electrical appliances become a source of serious danger.
Materials with increased radioactivity can, together with building materials (granite, slag, cement, clay, etc.), get into the building structures of residential buildings and create a risk of radioactive exposure of people living in them. When natural uranium decays, the radioactive gas radon is formed as an intermediate product. Being released from building materials and from the soil, radon can accumulate in an unventilated room and enter the body through the respiratory system. Ventilation reduces the concentration of radon and toxic fumes from synthetic materials.
According to the World Health Organization, 70% of harmful components enter the human body with food. These are various food surrogates, drinks, as well as agricultural products, during the cultivation of which herbicides, pesticides, and mineral fertilizers were intensively used. Food poisoning is often caused by a pathogenic microbe such as E. coli. They become infected by eating ready-made meat, fish, vegetable products that have not undergone heat treatment. The toxin produced by the causative agents of botulism is especially dangerous for humans, for the reproduction of which requires low acidity and the absence of oxygen in the products, such conditions are most often created during home canning, when complete sterilization is not achieved. When such canned food is consumed, the toxin enters the bloodstream and affects the cells of the central nervous system. A person first shows general malaise, weakness, dizziness, headache, dry mouth. The most characteristic sign of botulism toxin poisoning is visual disturbances (a mesh appears in front of the eyes, double vision, supposedly floating in a fog). Then there is difficulty in swallowing and breathing.
The only salvation in these cases is the immediate introduction of a specific serum that binds the toxin. Canned food with signs of deterioration of the lids must not be consumed.
Alcohol, which is found in many drinks, when consumed in moderation can improve mood and well-being. Therefore, in household traditions, the use of such drinks is common. However, phenomena that change the state of a person and cause a loss of self-control are not uncommon. The same amount of alcohol can affect different people in different ways. So, when alcohol is taken on an empty stomach, its concentration in the blood is higher and the consequences of poisoning are more severe than when taken after a meal; the female body is more sensitive to alcohol than the male. With the constant and excessive use of alcohol, a dependence on it of a narcotic nature appears, ultimately leading to the development of a symptom complex called alcoholism. In the process of the spread of alcohol in the body, substances are formed that block the absorption of sugar and fats by the body, which in turn reduces the absorption of vitamins necessary for adequate nutrition of cells. A large amount of oxygen is consumed by its oxidation.
Green spaces in the residential area enrich the air with oxygen, promote the dispersion of harmful substances and absorb them, and reduce the level of street noise by 8-10 dB in the summer. According to the recommendations of ecologists and physicians, in the ideal for life area, buildings should not occupy more than 50%, and asphalt and stone-covered spaces - more than 30% of landscaped areas. Green spaces and lawns not only improve the microclimate, thermal regime, humidify and purify the air, but also have a psychophysical effect on people.
Residential (household) environment Is a set of conditions and factors that allow a person to carry out their non-productive activities on the territory of populated areas.
Classification of hazardous factors in the domestic environment
I. By degree of danger factors of the domestic environment can be divided into two main groups: those that are the actual causes of diseases (for example, asbestos, formaldehyde, allergens), and factors that contribute to the development of diseases (factors of low intensity - chemical, microbial, dust pollution of indoor air).
II. Dangerous factors by the nature of the action are also subdivided into physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological.
TO physically hazardous factors include: noise, electromagnetic radiation, dustiness, gas pollution, insufficient lighting, ionizing radiation, etc.
TO chemically hazardous factors include chemicals used in production and in everyday life (preservatives, detergents, cleaning agents, disinfectants and other agents), medicines used for other purposes, etc.
Biologically dangerous factors are:
- pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc.) and their waste products;
- plants and animals.
TO psychophysiological factors include neuropsychic overload (mental overstrain, emotional overload, overstrain of analyzers: hearing, sight, smell), physical overload.
Dangerous production factor is called a production factor, the impact of which on a worker in certain conditions leads to injury or other sudden sharp deterioration in health.
TO physical factors include electric current, kinetic energy of moving machines and equipment or their parts, increased pressure of vapors or gases in vessels, unacceptable levels of noise, vibration, infra- and ultrasound, insufficient illumination, electromagnetic fields, ionizing radiation, etc. Chemical factors are substances harmful to the human body in various states. Biological factors are the effects of various microorganisms, as well as plants and animals. Psychophysiological factors are physical and emotional overload, mental overstrain, monotony of work.
Hazardous production factors include, for example:
Electric current of a certain strength;
Hot bodies;
The possibility of falling from the height of the worker himself or of various parts and objects;
Equipment operating under pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, etc. Harmful production factors include:
Unfavorable meteorological conditions;
Dust and gas content of the air;
Impact of noise, infra- and ultrasound, vibration;
The presence of electromagnetic fields, laser and ionizing radiation, etc.
12. Classification of methods and equipment for cleaning emissions
13. Alternative source of energy. Classification of alternative energy sources.
Alternative energy source - a method, device or structure that allows you to obtain electrical energy (or other required type of energy) and replaces traditional energy sources operating on oil, produced natural gas and coal. The purpose of the search for alternative energy sources is the need to obtain it from renewable or practically inexhaustible energy. natural resources and phenomena.
Alternative or, as they are sometimes called, renewable energy sources (RES) include solar, wind, geothermal, tidal energy, wave energy, bioenergy and energy of the temperature difference between the depths of the seas and oceans and other "new" types of renewable energy.
Solar energy
All kinds of solar power plants use solar radiation as an alternative source of energy. Radiation from the Sun can be used both for heating needs and for generating electricity (using photovoltaic cells).
The advantages of solar energy include the renewability of this energy source, noiselessness, absence of harmful emissions into the atmosphere when processing solar radiation into other types of energy.
The disadvantages of solar energy are the dependence of the intensity of solar radiation on the daily and seasonal rhythm, as well as the need for large areas for the construction of solar power plants. Also, a serious environmental problem is the use of poisonous and toxic substances in the manufacture of photovoltaic cells for solar systems, which creates a problem of their disposal.
Wind energy
Wind is one of the most promising energy sources. The principle of operation of a wind generator is elementary. The force of the wind is used to propel the wind wheel. This rotation is in turn transmitted to the rotor of the electric generator.
The advantage of a wind generator is, first of all, that in windy places, the wind can be considered an inexhaustible source of energy. In addition, wind turbines, while producing energy, do not pollute the atmosphere with harmful emissions.
The disadvantages of devices for the production of wind energy include the inconstancy of the wind force and the low power of a single wind generator. Also, wind turbines are known for making a lot of noise, as a result of which they try to build them far from where people live.
Geothermal energy
Great amount thermal energy is stored in the depths of the earth. This is due to the fact that the temperature of the Earth's core is extremely high. In some parts of the world, high-temperature magma directly reaches the Earth's surface: volcanic areas, hot springs of water or steam. The energy of these geothermal sources is proposed to be used as an alternative source by supporters of geothermal energy.
Geothermal sources are used in different ways. Some sources are used for heat supply, others - for generating electricity from thermal energy.
The advantages of geothermal energy sources include inexhaustibility and independence from the time of day and season.
The negative aspects include the fact that thermal waters are highly mineralized, and often also saturated with toxic compounds. This makes it impossible to discharge waste thermal waters into surface water bodies. Therefore, the waste water must be pumped back into the underground aquifer. In addition, some seismologists oppose any intervention in the deep layers of the Earth, arguing that it can provoke earthquakes.
The energy of the ebb and flow
A tidal power plant (or tidal hydroelectric power plant) is a type of power plant similar in design to power plants installed on rivers. Since the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are constant values, the choice of the site for the construction of the power plant is influenced by the features of the coastal relief, which contribute to the formation of the greatest tidal amplitude. During construction, a river mouth or a rather narrow bay is blocked off with a dam, and hydraulic turbines are installed that generate electricity due to the energy of the flow of moving water.
The main disadvantage of tidal power plants is the impossibility of their continuous operation, which is associated with the cyclical nature of the ebb and flow. The use of tidal power plants is considered, first of all, within the framework of the general energy system, as storage or standby power plants that store energy and release it at the time of peak consumption.
Tidal power plants are one of the most demanded ways to use renewable energy sources with broad development prospects.
Wave energy- the energy of waves on the ocean surface, used to perform useful work - generating electricity, desalting water and pumping water into reservoirs. Wave energy is a renewable energy source. Wave power is estimated in kW per linear meter, i.e. in kW / m. Compared to wind and solar energy, wave energy has a much higher power density. So, the average power of the seas and oceans, as a rule, exceeds 15 kW / m. With a wave height of 2 m, the power reaches 80 kW / m. That is, when developing the surface of the oceans, there can be no shortage of energy. Of course, only a part of the excitement power can be used into mechanical and electrical energy, but for water the conversion coefficient is higher than for air - up to 85%. Wave energy is concentrated energy from wind and ultimately solar energy. The power received from the excitement of all the oceans of the planet cannot be greater than the power received from the Sun. But the specific power of electric generators powered by waves can be much higher than for other alternative energy sources. Despite the similar nature, wave energy is usually distinguished from the energy of tides and ocean currents. Generation of electricity using wave energy is not a common practice; currently, only experimental research is being carried out in this area.
Bio fuel is a fuel from biological raw materials, obtained, as a rule, as a result of processing sugar cane stalks or rapeseed, corn, soybeans. There are also projects of varying degrees of sophistication aimed at obtaining biofuels from cellulose and various types of organic waste, but these technologies are in an early stage of development or commercialization.
A distinction is made between liquid biofuels (for internal combustion engines, for example, ethanol, methanol, biodiesel), solid biofuels (wood, straw) and gaseous (biogas, hydrogen).
There are two main directions for obtaining fuel from biomass: using thermochemical processes or through biotechnological processing. Experience shows that biotechnological processing is the most promising organic matter... In the mid-1980s, industrial plants for the production of biomass fuels were operating in different countries. The most widespread is the production of alcohol.
One of the most promising areas of energy use of biomass is the production of biogas from it, which consists of 50-80% methane and 20-50% carbon dioxide. Its calorific value is 5-6 thousand kcal / m3.
The most efficient production of biogas from manure. From one ton of it you can get 10-12 cubic meters. m of methane. And, for example, the processing of 100 million tons of crop waste such as cereal straw can yield about 20 billion cubic meters. m of methane. In cotton-growing regions, 8-9 million tons of cotton stalks remain annually, from which up to 2 billion cubic meters can be obtained. m of methane. For the same purposes, it is possible to utilize the tops of cultivated plants, grasses, and more.
Biogas can be converted into thermal and electrical energy, used in internal combustion engines to produce synthesis gas and artificial gasoline.
The production of biogas from organic waste makes it possible to simultaneously solve three problems: energy, agrochemical (obtaining fertilizers such as nitrophoska) and environmental. Installations for the production of biogas are located, as a rule, in the area of large cities, centers for the processing of agricultural raw materials.
14. Environmental audit as an independent type of environmental protection activity. Motivation for the implementation of EA programs at Russian enterprises.
The place of environmental listening in the system of environmental control and management in the Russian Federation.
Permissive documentation:
MPE - maximum permissible emission; MPD - maximum permissible discharge; LRO - waste disposal limit. On the basis of these documents, an environmental passport of the enterprise is made, and a permit for emissions into the atmosphere is given. However, the permit includes “environmental charges” for the emission. The price will depend on the number of emissions specified in the permit and the actual emissions. If the actual emissions are less, then you can challenge the price and pay less. However, if there are more emissions, then you will have to pay twice (or more).
Waste disposal limit - an enterprise must have specially prepared sites for storing a certain amount of waste (since, even if there is an agreement on waste disposal, it is not possible to remove them continuously for economic reasons).
The subject of environmental audit in Russia today is not so much environmental reporting as actual environmental activity in all aspects:
Short-term and long-term environmental goals, objectives, the presence of environmental programs and environmental policy at the enterprise.
Monitoring, regulation, minimization of emissions and discharges of pollutants (both from the main production and auxiliary).
Placement and use, processing, waste disposal.
Monitoring, rational use, ecological management of the used natural resources.
Activities to ensure the safety of personnel, including the assessment of the risk of accidents (including environmental) and emergencies.
Environmental awareness, education and training of personnel.
Interaction with state environmental control and management bodies, including licensing of nature management, insurance and certification.
Interaction with the public.
Environmental-economic, environmental-legal and criminal liability for violation of environmental legislation, reducing the risk of its occurrence, as well as the aspect of changing payments for environmental pollution.
In conditions where, as a rule, most of the pollution entering the environment is not fixed, consulting services are often carried out during the environmental audit procedure. The consultation is carried out in the field of justification of environmental strategy and policy, as well as in the determination of priorities in environmental activities, in matters of planning environmental activities and identifying additional opportunities for the implementation of environmental activities.
Goals and objectives of environmental audit in Russia.
1. Rationale for the policy and strategy in the field of environmental protection,
2. Analysis and assessment of environmental aspects of economic and other projects.
3. Analysis and assessment of regulations in the field of environmental protection.
4. Justification and initiation of environmental activities.
5. Identification of environmental problems of industries and territories.
15. Aerosols and their classification
16. Use of traditional fuels. Problems, criteria for the transition from traditional fuels to new ones.
· 92% of the produced oil is used as fuel, and 8% as valuable chemical raw material.
· Fires, accidents and oil spills at oil wells, pipelines and oil refineries are fraught with the death of people, many animals, birds and fish.
· Burning oil is accompanied by emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Today, oil accounts for almost 40% of the world's energy. But most experts believe that by the middle of the 21st century, oil consumption for energy needs will sharply decline, because its reserves are coming to an end.
· Coal was the first non-renewable energy source used by humans. Coal and steam marked the beginning of the era of industrial capitalism in Europe and America.
· Coal was formed from the remains of dead plants over several hundred million years under the influence of pressure, temperature and microorganisms. The coal reserves available for mining will be depleted in the current century.
· Coal mining has harmful effects on nature and on humans. The pollution of nature is very great when coal is burned for energy production. At the same time, only one third of the heat is consumed for the production of electricity, while the remaining two thirds of the heat energy is emitted into the atmosphere.
· The consequences of accidents at nuclear power plants are comparable to the consequences of atomic bombings both in terms of the number of victims and in terms of environmental pollution.
· Today, all over the world, nuclear power plants (NPPs) provide about 17% of the electricity produced on Earth. And the share of nuclear energy in the world production of all types of energy is slightly more than 6%. In Russia, ten nuclear power plants produce approximately 16% of electricity.
· Different countries have different attitudes towards nuclear power plants. France is the leader in the use of the "peaceful atom" energy.
· There, at the nuclear power plant, about 4/5 of all electricity is generated.
· Germany, on the contrary, has decided to close all nuclear power plants in the country by 2020.
In the United States, after several years of decline in
Nuclear power it was re-declared
One of the main directions of energy
· Strategies. In Austria, the people at the referendum
Made a decision not to commission
The only nuclear power plant built there
· Station. Denmark has completely abandoned
· The use of atomic energy.
· The main advantages of peat as an energy carrier:
Low cost,
A small amount of sulfur compounds formed during combustion,
Sufficiently complete combustion (small amount of ash formed)
· Disadvantages:
Low heat of combustion,
· Difficulty burning due to high moisture content (up to 65%). With a high degree of pressing (peat briquette), the moisture content decreases, but the cost increases.
Gaseous fuel is the only type of alternative fuel for which technical and environmental problems of use have been solved in Russia. The main difficulty in the transition of road transport to gas fuel lies in the need to create the appropriate infrastructure: factories, storage facilities, filling stations. It is necessary to take into account the psychology of the consumer, with a prejudice relating to the unusual gaseous fuel.
Compressed natural gas, which is mainly methane in composition, can be used as a motor fuel after a relatively simple alteration of the engine and car, which consists in installing cylinders designed for a pressure of about 20 MPa and making changes to the design of the fuel supply system. Thanks to its high octane number, natural gas is an excellent fuel for Otto engines. The use of natural gas in diesel engines is difficult due to its relatively high autoignition temperature and, accordingly, low cetane number. To overcome this difficulty, a so-called dual-fuel system is used - a small amount of diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber as an ignition charge, and then compressed natural gas is supplied.
Safety is a state of the system "man - habitat" in which, with a certain probability, the manifestation of hazards is excluded. Providing comfortable conditions for activity and rest creates the preconditions for the manifestation of the highest human performance. At the same time, the formation, selection and determination of comfortable conditions (parameters and organization of production, natural, social environment, habitat) of activity and recreation should be based on knowledge of the regularities of the interrelationships of the "human - habitat" system, human physiology, his psychological state and functional capabilities. As a result of the implementation of this approach, a decrease in injuries and morbidity of people, a decrease in the number of these hazards or a decrease in their level is ensured.
The household environment is the environment in which a person lives. It includes a complex of residential, social, cultural and sports buildings and structures, public utilities and institutions. The main characteristics of this environment are the size of the living space per person, the degree of electrification, gasification of housing, the presence of a central heating system, cold and hot water, the level of development of public transport, etc.
In the complex of conditions for ensuring the safety of human life, everyday life has a special place. Today, an urban person spends most of his life in an artificially formed environment. The discrepancy between the human body and the living or working environment is felt as psychological discomfort. Moving away from nature increases the stress of the body's functions, and the use of more and more diverse artificial materials, household chemicals and equipment is accompanied by an increase in the number of sources of negative factors and an increase in their energy level.
The household environment is the presence of factors and elements that affect a person in everyday life. The elements of household factors include elements that are related:
- * using household appliances: TVs, gas, electric, washing machines, hair dryers and others;
- * with education and upbringing, with the social status of the family, material security, psychological environment in everyday life.
Housing should be called ecological, together with adjacent areas that form a favorable living environment (microclimate, protection from noise and pollution, harmlessness of materials in construction, etc.), do not have a negative impact on the urban and natural environment, economically uses energy and provides communication with nature.
Modern housing cannot yet be called ecological, because physical and chemical factors harmful to the body are introduced from construction and finishing materials, furniture and equipment, the ventilation system does not meet the requirements for air purification in apartments, the noise regime and microclimate are disturbed, and the heat loss of houses is very large.
Large houses have an unfavorable microclimate and a tense psychological environment.
All factors of the household environment can be divided into physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological. The identification of negative factors in the everyday environment is difficult through the complexity of their influence in all its spheres.
The amount of contaminated matter in indoor air is tens and hundreds of times more than outdoors. The most significant contamination is formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a pungent unpleasant odor that is part of synthetic materials and is emitted by various things: furniture, carpets and synthetic flooring, plywood, and foam. Furniture is made more often from chipboard, formaldehyde is included in their connecting masses. Synthetic materials also emit vinyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, acetone and many other compounds, which, when mixed, form even more toxic substances.
The presence of formaldehyde can irritate the mucous membranes of the eyes, throat, upper respiratory tract, as well as headaches and nausea. Furniture contributes about 70% of the air pollution in the living space; dangerous concentrations of toxic gases accumulate in closed cabinets and drawers.
In the event of a fire, hazardous emissions from synthetic materials occur. Organic glass and foam rubber, for example, when burning, intensively emit hydrocyanic acid, phosgene and other powerful poisons. Burning synthetic materials in everyday life is unacceptable.
Varnishes and paints contain toxic substances characterized by both general toxicity and specific types of action - allergenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic and others. Special control is established over the use of new polymeric materials approved for use by the sanitary service.
Factors that pose a hazard in the working environment, hazardous and in everyday life. Fire-hazardous and explosive substances require careful handling: solvents, acetone, gasoline, as well as pesticides for fighting insects - insecticides, with weeds - herbicides, with plant diseases - fungicides.
They must be used in strict compliance with the regulations and safety measures, guided by the current instructions on the packaging, label and leaflets.
Thus, the penetration of chlorophos, karbofos and other similar substances into the human body leads to the deactivation of choline esterase, important enzymes of the nervous system. The use of household pesticides in closed rooms without protective equipment is life-threatening.
Various detergents and synthetic cleaning agents are irritating to the skin and may cause allergic reactions if their vapor and powders are inhaled. Acidic and alkaline household preparations cause a pronounced local effect on the skin and mucous membranes.
The danger is posed by gas equipment through the possible leakage of natural gas, which has explosive and toxic properties. The presence of carbon monoxide and nitrogen from the combustion of this fuel leads to a reduction in lung volume (especially in children) and an increased susceptibility to acute respiratory infections. Gas equipment can only be used with good ventilation of the room.
The susceptibility to infection increases due to the inhalation of vapors of varnishes, paints, chemical solvents and their aerosols. It is harmful to inhale tobacco smoke. In the United States, it is estimated that 500 to 5,000 deaths each year are directly related to secondhand smoke. absorption of tobacco smoke by non-smokers.
A person in a household environment is affected by electric fields from electrical wiring, electrical appliances, lighting fixtures, microwave ovens and televisions.
In a color TV, electrons are accelerated by a voltage of 25 kV; when they are decelerated, X-rays are excited on the screen by a kinescope. The design of the TV set absorbs most of this radiation, but if you stay near the TV for a long time, you can get a significant dose of radiation.
Therefore, it is not advisable to use the TV as a computer display and it is not recommended to be located near the screen.
There are frequent cases of electric shock in everyday life. Electric appliances are environmentally friendly, significantly facilitate housework, work on the farm and in the garden, and increase the comfort of life, subject to the rules of electrical safety. Otherwise, household electrical appliances become a source of serious danger.
Materials with increased radioactivity can, together with building materials (granite, slags, cement, clay and others), get into the building structures of residential buildings and create a risk of radioactive exposure of the people living with them.
When natural uranium decays as an intermediate product, the radioactive gas radon is formed. Released from building materials and from the ground, radon can accumulate in an unventilated room and enter the body through the respiratory system. Ventilation reduces radon concentration and toxic fumes from synthetic materials.
According to the World Health Organization, 70% of harmful components enter the human body with food. These are various food surrogates, drinks, and agricultural products, during the cultivation of which herbicides, pesticides, and mineral fertilizers were intensively used.
Food poisoning is often caused by pathogenic microbes such as Escherichia coli. She becomes infected when they consume ready-made meat, fish, vegetable products that have not undergone heat treatment.
Particularly dangerous for humans is the toxin produced by the causative agent of botulism, which requires low acidity and lack of oxygen in the products to reproduce, such conditions are more often created during home canning, when complete sterilization is not achieved.
When such canned food is consumed, the toxin enters the bloodstream and affects the cells of the central nervous system. A person first shows general malaise, weakness, dizziness, headache, dry mouth. One of the characteristic signs of botulism toxin poisoning is when from the side of vision (a mesh appears in front of the eyes, double vision, supposedly floating in a fog). Then there is difficulty in swallowing and breathing.
The only salvation in these cases is the immediate administration of a specific serum that binds the toxin. You can not use canned food with signs of damage to the lid or those that are blown away.
However, there are often phenomena that change the state of a person and cause a loss of self-control. And the amount of alcohol itself can affect different people in different ways. So, when alcohol is taken on an empty stomach, the concentration in the blood is higher and the consequences of poisoning are more severe than when taken after a meal; the female body is more sensitive to alcohol than the male. With the constant and excessive use of alcohol, a dependence on it of a narcotic nature appears, which ultimately leads to the development of a symptom complex called alcoholism.
In the process of the spread of alcohol in the body, substances are formed that block the absorption of sugar and fats by the body and reduce the absorption of vitamins necessary for adequate nutrition of cells. A large amount of oxygen is consumed for its oxidation. Only 5-15% of alcohol is excreted from the body. The safety limit is reached when drinking 0.5 ... 0.75 liters of wine with 10% alcohol content every other day.
Green spaces in the residential area enrich the air with oxygen, promote the dispersion of harmful substances and absorb them, and reduce the level of street noise by 8 ... 10 dB in the summer.
According to the recommendations of ecologists and doctors, ideally for human life, buildings should not occupy more than 50%, and asphalting and stone-covering the space - more than 30% of landscaped areas. Green spaces and lawns not only improve the microclimate, thermal regime, humidify and purify the air, but also make a charitable psychophysical effect on people.
In cities, work should be done to reduce the space covered with stones, asphalt, concrete, reduce the traffic intensity, organize a small park ensemble and gardens, and plant facades of buildings.
