Russian-Swedish War 1700 1721. Northern War. Causes and main participants of the war
North War(Russian-Swedish) 1700-1721 - a protracted conflict between Sweden and the Northern Alliance (a coalition of the Russian Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Denmark and Saxony) for the possession of the Baltic lands. It ended with the defeat of Sweden and a significant strengthening of the position of the Russian kingdom, which gained access to the Baltic Sea, returned previously owned lands and was proclaimed the Russian Empire, and Peter I accepted the title of Emperor of All Russia
Territories of states at the start of the Northern War
Reasons and background
- During the Great Embassy, Peter I found allies to wage war with Sweden (Northern Alliance) - Denmark and Saxony sought to weaken Sweden.
- In 1697, Sweden was led by the young Charles XII - the fifteen-year-old king seemed an easy prey for competing states
- Sweden captured Ingria and Karelia during the Time of Troubles.
- For the Russian kingdom, the Baltic Sea was the most important economic channel for the development of maritime trade with Europe.
- Peter I cited a personal insult during his visit to Riga, where the commandant of the fortress did not allow the king to inspect the fortifications, as the formal reason for declaring war.
Goals and objectives
- Gaining access to the Baltic Sea to develop foreign maritime trade with Europe
- Return of Ingria and Karelia, seizure of part of the Baltic states
- Weakening Swedish dominance
- Raising Russia's international status
Briefly about the essence and content of the Russian-Swedish war
1700-1721
Stage 1 - the beginning of the Northern War
Sweden acted successfully at the beginning of the war - the siege of Riga by the Saxon army failed, the Swedish landing near Copenhagen forced Denmark to withdraw from the Northern Alliance, and was poorly organized, poorly armed and without its own officers Russian troops (commanded by Saxon officers and generals) failed to resist the Swedes near Narva on November 30, 1700 - the young army of Peter I was defeated.
This defeat convinced all of Europe for several years that the Russian army was incapable of conducting successful military operations, and Charles XII began to be called the Swedish “Alexander the Great.” One of the main conclusions of Peter I as a result of the failure at Narva was to limit the number of foreign officers in combat units. They could make up no more than a third of the total number of officers in the unit.
Northern War 1700-1721 - general table
1701 While the Swedes were busy fighting in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Saxony, Peter I decides to again advance in a northern direction.
By the beginning of 1703 Russian troops occupied the entire course of the Neva. Peter renamed the captured settlement of Noteburg (built by the Swedes on the site of the previously existing Oreshek fortress) Shlisselburg (key city), and at the mouth of the Neva on May 16 (27), 1703, a new city and future capital was founded - St. Petersburg.
In 1704 Russian troops continued to seize territories - almost the entire territory of Ingria came under the control of the Russian kingdom. By the summer of 1704, the commander of the troops, Boris Sheremetyev, invaded Livonia and besieged the fortress of Dorpat, which was taken a few months later with the personal participation of Peter I.
Summer of 1704 General Ogilvi with the second group of the Russian army invaded Estland and again besieged Narva - by the end of the summer this fortress was also captured. Success in the assault on well-fortified Swedish fortresses demonstrated the increased skill and equipment of the Russian army, as well as the correctness of the decisions made regarding the reorganization of personnel and the reduction in the number of artillery calibers.
Swedish invasion of Russia
Having defeated the army of Peter the Great near Narva in 1700, Charles XII turned all his forces against another member of the Northern Alliance - Augustus II. Within four years, the Swedes ousted the Saxon troops from Poland, as a result of which in 1704 some of the deputies of the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth deprived Augustus II of the title of king, and his place was taken by a Swedish protege.
In the war with Sweden, the Russian kingdom was left without allies.
In the spring of 1707 The first rumors appeared that Charles XII was preparing his main army, which was stationed in capitulated Saxony, for a campaign against Russia.
September 1, 1707 The Swedes army set out from Saxony towards Poland. During the 11 months of respite in Saxony, Charles XII managed to significantly strengthen his troops, making up for the losses suffered in past battles.
In June 1708 The Swedes crossed the border and moved towards Smolensk.
July 3 (14), 1708 Karl defeated the Russian troops of General A.I. Repnin at the Battle of Golovchin. Three days later, the Swedish king occupied Mogilev and controlled the crossings across the Dnieper.
To delay the advance of the Swedes, Peter I used the “scorched earth” tactic - dozens of Belarusian villages were destroyed, and, forced to move through the devastated area, the Swedes experienced an acute shortage of food. Illness, lack of food and supplies, the need for rest after a long journey - all this persuaded Charles XII to accept Hetman Mazepa’s proposal and send troops to Ukraine.
September 28 (October 9), 1708 In the battle near the village of Lesnoy, the troops of Peter I defeated the corps of Levenhaupt, moving from Riga to unite with the main army of Charles XII. This victory seriously raised the morale of the Russian army - within the framework of the Northern War, for the first time, superior enemy forces and his selected army units were defeated. Tsar Peter called her “the mother of the Poltava battle.”
In October 1708 news arrived about the betrayal of Hetman Ivan Mazepa and his defection to the side of Sweden. Mazepa corresponded with Charles XII and offered him, if he arrived in Ukraine, 50 thousand Cossacks, provisions and a comfortable winter quarters.
Unable to replenish supplies, the Swedish army by the spring of 1709 began to experience a shortage of hand grenades, cannonballs, lead and gunpowder. Mazepa informed the Swedes that military supplies prepared in case of battles with the Crimea or Turkey were collected in large quantities in the Poltava fortress.
The Battle of Poltava - a turning point in the Northern War
The victories at Kalisz and Lesnaya allowed the Russian army to create and consolidate a numerical advantage over the troops of Charles XII. In the army of Peter I there were about 40-50 thousand people and 100 guns, and the Swedes had 20-30 thousand people and 34 guns with an acute shortage of gunpowder. A competent choice of the battlefield enhanced the tactical advantage (the forest prevented wide coverage of Russian positions from the flank, if the Swedes made such an attempt). The Swedes were forced to storm pre-prepared Russian fortifications, leaving the less mobile main forces of Peter the Great's army for safe combat deployment.
Having been defeated near Poltava, the Swedish army fled to Perevolochnaya - the place at the confluence of the Vorskla and the Dnieper. But faced with the impossibility of transporting the army across the Dnieper, Charles XII entrusted the remnants of his troops to Levengaupt, and he and Mazepa fled to Ochakov.
October 9, 1709 In Toruń, a new alliance treaty was concluded with Saxony; on October 11, a new peace treaty was signed with Denmark, according to which it pledged to act against Sweden, and Russia pledged to launch military operations in the Baltic states and Finland. The victory at Poltava allowed Peter I to restore the Northern Alliance.
Charles XII hid in the Ottoman Empire, where he tried to persuade Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia (Turkey sought to return the territories captured by Peter I as a result of the Azov campaigns)
Türkiye enters the war
At the end of 1710 Peter received news of the Turks preparing for war and decided to seize the initiative - at the beginning of 1711, he declared war on the Ottoman Empire and began the Prut Campaign. The campaign ended in complete failure: together with all his troops, Peter I was surrounded and was forced to return Azov and Zaporozhye to Turkey, destroy the Taganrog fortifications and ships, and, as a result, lose access to the Sea of Azov. Only on these conditions did the Ottoman Empire allow Russian troops to leave the encirclement without entering the war on the side of Sweden.
Numerous resources spent on the Prut campaign complicated the situation on the Swedish front - the economy of the Russian kingdom was not designed for such a load.
Fighting in Finland and Norway
In 1713 Russian troops entered Finland, and the Russian fleet for the first time began to play a significant role in hostilities. On May 10, after shelling from the sea, Helsingfors was taken, after which Breg surrendered without a fight. On August 6 - August 7, 1714, the first major victory of the Russian fleet in the Baltic Sea took place in the Battle of Gangut, and on August 28, a landing force under the command of F. M. Apraksin captured Abo, the capital of Finland. On land, Russian troops under the leadership of Prince M. M. Golitsyn defeated the Swedes near the river. Pälkane (1713), and later under Lappola (1714).
In 1716 Charles XII began fighting in Norway. On March 25, his troops took Christiania, but failed when storming the border forts of Fredrikshald and Fredriksten. In 1718, during another assault, Karl was killed - the Swedish troops were forced to retreat. Clashes between Denmark and Sweden on the border with Norway occurred until 1720.
The final stage of the Northern War 1718-1721
In May 1718 To develop the conditions for concluding peace between Russia and Sweden, the Åland Congress began its work. However, the Swedes drag out negotiations in the hope of winning a victory that could soften the conditions of the coming peace.
In July 1719 year, Admiral Apraksin, commander of the Russian fleet, landed troops near Stockholm and raids on the surrounding territories of the Swedish capital.
In 1720 Brigadier Mengden repeated the raid on the Swedish coast, and on July 27 (August 7) he rowed the Russian fleet against the Swedish sailing flotilla in the battle of Grengam.
Under the cover of the English squadron, the Swedes tried to go to sea to intercept Russian landing craft. Having set off in pursuit of the feignedly retreating Russian ships into a narrow strait, the Swedes were suddenly attacked by more maneuverable rowing ships and, trying to turn around, one after another, ran aground and were boarded. Having seen how 4 Swedish frigates, which had a total of 104 guns, were captured by the Russians, the British were convinced of the weakness of their sailing fleet against the Russian rowing fleet and did not come to the aid of the Swedes.
May 8, 1721 New peace negotiations began between the Russian kingdom and Sweden in Nystadt, ending with the signing of the Nystadt Peace Treaty on September 10, 1721.
Go to the initial page of the directory The war between Russia (as part of the Northern Union) and Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.
After the defeat at Narva (1700), Peter I reorganized the army and created the Baltic Fleet.
In 1701-1704, Russian troops gained a foothold on the coast of the Gulf of Finland and took Dorpat, Narva and other fortresses.
In 1703 St. Petersburg was founded, which became the capital of the Russian Empire.
In 1708 Swedish troops that invaded Russian territory were defeated at Lesnaya.
Battle of Poltava 1709 ended with the complete defeat of the Swedes and the flight of Charles XII to Turkey.
The Baltic fleet won victories at Gangut (1714), Grengam (1720), etc. It ended with the Peace of Nystadt in 1721.
Balance of power. Stages of the war
At the end of the 17th century. Russia faced three main foreign policy tasks: access to the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the reunification of ancient Russian lands. The international activities of Peter I began with the struggle for access to the Black Sea. However, after a visit abroad as part of the Grand Embassy, the tsar had to change his foreign policy guidelines. Disillusioned with the plan for access to the southern seas, which turned out to be impossible under those conditions, Peter adopted the task of returning those captured by Sweden at the beginning of the 17th century. Russian lands. The Baltic attracted the convenience of trade relations with the developed countries of Northern Europe. Direct contacts with them could help technical progress Russia. In addition, Peter found interested parties in the creation of the anti-Swedish union. In particular, the Polish king and Saxon elector Augustus II the Strong also had territorial claims to Sweden. In 1699, Peter I and Augustus II formed the Russo-Saxon Northern Alliance (“Northern League”) against Sweden. Denmark (Frederick IV) also joined the union of Saxony and Russia.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Sweden was the most powerful power in the Baltic region. Throughout the 17th century, its power grew due to the seizure of the Baltic states, Karelia, and lands in northern Germany. The Swedish armed forces numbered up to 150 thousand people. They had excellent weapons, rich military experience and high fighting qualities. Sweden was a country of advanced military art. Its commanders (primarily King Gustav Adolf) laid the foundations for the military tactics of that time. The Swedish army was recruited on a national basis, unlike the mercenary troops of many European countries, and was considered the best in Western Europe. Sweden also had a strong navy, which consisted of 42 battleships and 12 frigates with a personnel of 13 thousand people. The military power of this state rested on a solid industrial foundation. In particular, Sweden had a developed metallurgy and was the largest iron producer in Europe.
As for the Russian armed forces, at the end of the 17th century. they were in the process of reform. Despite their significant numbers (200 thousand people in the 80s of the 17th century), they did not have a sufficient number of modern types of weapons. In addition, internal unrest after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich (streltsy riots, the struggle of the Naryshkins and Miloslavskys) had a negative impact on the level of combat readiness of the Russian armed forces, slowing down the implementation of military reforms. The country had almost no modern navy (there was none at all in the proposed theater of operations). The country's own production of modern weapons was also insufficiently developed due to the weakness of the industrial base. Thus, Russia entered the war insufficiently prepared to fight such a strong and skilled enemy.
The Northern War began in August 1700. It lasted for 21 years, becoming the second longest in Russian history. Military operations covered a vast territory from the northern forests of Finland to the southern steppes of the Black Sea region, from cities in northern Germany to the villages of Left Bank Ukraine. Therefore, the Northern War should be divided not only into stages, but also into theaters of military operations. Relatively speaking, we can distinguish 6 sections:
1. Northwestern theater of military operations (1700-1708).
2. Western theater of military operations (1701-1707).
3. Charles XII’s campaign against Russia (1708-1709).
4. Northwestern and Western theaters of military operations (1710-1713).
5. Military actions in Finland (1713-1714).
6. The final period of the war (1715-1721).
Northwestern theater of operations (1700-1708)
The first stage of the Northern War was characterized mainly by the struggle of Russian troops for access to the Baltic Sea. In September 1700, a 35,000-strong Russian army under the command of Tsar Peter I besieged Narva, a strong Swedish fortress on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. Capturing this stronghold made it possible for the Russians to dissect Swedish possessions in the Gulf of Finland region and act against the Swedes both in the Baltic states and the Neva basin. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Horn (about 2 thousand people). In November, the Swedish army led by King Charles XII (12 thousand people, according to other sources - 32 thousand people) came to the aid of the besieged. By that time, she had already managed to defeat Peter's allies - the Danes, and then landed in the Baltic states, in the Pernov (Pärnu) region. Russian intelligence sent to meet her underestimated the number of the enemy. Then, leaving the Duke of Croix at the head of the army, Peter left for Novgorod to speed up the delivery of reinforcements.
Battle of Narva (1700). The first major battle of the Northern War was the Battle of Narva. It took place on November 19, 1700 near the Narva fortress between the Russian army under the command of the Duke of Croix and the Swedish army under the command of King Charles XII. The Russians were not sufficiently prepared for the battle. Their troops were stretched out in a thin line almost 7 km long with no reserves. The artillery, which was located opposite the bastions of Narva, was not brought into position either. Early in the morning of November 19, the Swedish army, under the cover of a snowstorm and fog, unexpectedly attacked the heavily extended Russian positions. Karl created two strike groups, one of which managed to break through in the center. Many foreign officers, led by de Croah, went over to the side of the Swedes. Treason in command and poor training led to panic in Russian units. They began a disorderly retreat to their right flank, where there was a bridge over the Narva River. Under the weight of the human masses, the bridge collapsed. On the left flank, the cavalry under the command of Governor Sheremetev, seeing the flight of other units, succumbed to general panic and rushed to swim across the river.
In this general confusion, the Russians, however, found persistent units, thanks to which the Battle of Narva did not turn into a simple beating of fleeing people. At a critical moment, when it seemed that everything was lost, the guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - entered the battle for the bridge. They repelled the onslaught of the Swedes and stopped the panic. Gradually, the remnants of the defeated units joined the Semyonovtsy and Preobrazhentsy. The battle at the bridge lasted several hours. Charles XII himself led troops in an attack against the Russian guards, but to no avail. Weide's division also fought staunchly on the left flank. As a result of the courageous resistance of these units, the Russians held out until night, when the battle died down. Negotiations began. The Russian army was in a difficult situation, but was not defeated. Karl, who personally experienced the fortitude of the Russian guard, apparently was not entirely confident in the success of tomorrow's battle and went to peace. The parties entered into an agreement under which the Russians received the right of free passage home. But when crossing Narva, the Swedes disarmed some units and captured officers. The Russians lost up to 8 thousand people in the Battle of Narva, including almost the entire senior officer corps. The damage to the Swedes amounted to about 3 thousand people.
After Narva, Charles XII did not begin a winter campaign against Russia. He believed that the Russians, who had learned the lesson from Narva, were not capable of serious resistance. The Swedish army opposed the Polish king Augustus II, in whom Charles XII saw a more dangerous opponent.
Strategically, Charles XII acted quite reasonably. However, he did not take into account one thing - the titanic energy of the Russian Tsar. The defeat at Narva did not discourage Peter I, but, on the contrary, gave him a powerful impetus to continue the struggle. “When we received this misfortune,” the tsar wrote, “then captivity drove away laziness, and forced us to hard work and art day and night.” Moreover, the struggle between the Swedes and Augustus II dragged on until the end of 1706, and the Russians had the necessary respite. Peter managed to create a new army and re-equip it. So, in 1701, 300 cannons were cast. Due to a shortage of copper, they were partially made from church bells. The Tsar divided his forces into two fronts: he sent part of the troops to Poland to help Augustus II, and the army under the command of B.P. Sheremetev continued to fight in the Baltic States, where, after the departure of the army of Charles XII, the Russians were opposed by insignificant Swedish forces.
Battle of Arkhangelsk (1701). The first success of the Russians in the Northern War was the battle near Arkhangelsk on June 25, 1701 between Swedish ships (5 frigates and 2 yachts) and a detachment of Russian boats under the command of officer Zhivotovsky. Approaching the mouth of the Northern Dvina under the flags of neutral countries (English and Dutch), the Swedish ships tried to carry out sabotage with an unexpected attack: destroy the fortress being built here, and then make their way to Arkhangelsk.
However, the local garrison was not at a loss and resolutely repelled the attack. Officer Zhivotovsky put the soldiers on the boats and fearlessly attacked the Swedish squadron. During the battle, two Swedish ships (a frigate and a yacht) ran aground and were captured. This was the first Russian success in the Northern War. He made Peter I extremely happy. “It’s very wonderful,” the Tsar wrote to the Arkhangelsk governor Apraksin and congratulated him on the “unexpected happiness” of repelling the “most evil Swedes.”
Battle of Erestfer (1701). The next success of the Russians, already on land, was the battle on December 29, 1701 at Erestfer (a settlement near present-day Tartu, in Estonia). The Russian army was commanded by Voivode Sheremetev (17 thousand people), the Swedish corps was commanded by General Schlippenbach (7 thousand people). The Swedes suffered a crushing defeat, losing half of their corps (3 thousand killed and 350 prisoners). Russian damage - 1 thousand people. This was the first major success of the Russian army in the Northern War. He had a huge impact on raising the morale of Russian soldiers who were reckoning with the defeat at Narva. For the victory at Erestfera, Sheremetev was showered with numerous favors; received the highest order of St. Andrew the First-Called, a royal portrait studded with diamonds, and the rank of field marshal.
Battle of Hummelshof (1702). The campaign of 1702 began with a march of a 30,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev to Livonia. On July 18, 1702, the Russians met near Gummelshof with the 7,000-strong Swedish corps of General Schlippenbach. Despite the obvious disparity of forces, Schlippenbach confidently got involved in the battle. The Swedish corps, which fought with great dedication, was almost completely destroyed (losses exceeded 80% of its strength). Russian damage - 1.2 thousand people. After the victory at Hummelsgof, Sheremetev made a raid across Livonia from Riga to Revel. After the defeat at Hummelshof, the Swedes began to avoid battles in the open field and took refuge behind the walls of their fortresses. This is how the fortress period of the war began in the northwestern theater. The first major Russian success was the capture of Noteburg.
Capture of Noteburg (1702). The Swedish fortress Noteburg at the source of the Neva from Lake Ladoga was created on the site of the former Russian fortress Oreshek (now Petrokrepost). Its garrison numbered 450 people. The assault began on October 11, 1702 and lasted 12 hours. The assault detachment (2.5 thousand people) was commanded by Prince Golitsyn. The first Russian onslaught was repulsed with heavy losses. But when Tsar Peter I ordered a retreat, Golitsyn, heated by the battle, answered Menshikov, who was sent to him, that now he was not in the royal will, but in God’s will, and personally led his soldiers to a new attack. Despite heavy fire, Russian soldiers climbed the ladders onto the walls of the fortress and fought hand-to-hand with its defenders. The battle for Noteburg was extremely fierce. Golitsyn’s detachment lost more than half of its strength (1.5 thousand people). A third of the Swedes (150 people) survived. Paying tribute to the courage of the soldiers of the Swedish garrison, Peter released them with military honors.
“It is true that this nut was extremely cruel, but, thank God, it was happily chewed,” the tsar wrote. Noteburg became the first major Swedish fortress taken by the Russians in the Northern War. According to a foreign observer, it was “truly amazing how the Russians could climb such a fortress and took it with the help of siege ladders alone.” It is worth noting that the height of its stone walls reached 8.5 meters. Peter renamed Noteburg to Shlisselburg, i.e. “key city”. In honor of the capture of the fortress, a medal was struck with the inscription: “I was with the enemy for 90 years.”
Capture of Nyenskans (1703). In 1703, the Russian onslaught continued. If in 1702 they captured the source of the Neva, now they took up its mouth, where the Swedish fortress Nyenschanz was located. On May 1, 1703, Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev (20 thousand people) besieged this fortress. Nyenschanz was defended by a garrison under the command of Colonel Apollo (600 people). Before the assault, Tsar Peter I, who was with the army, wrote in his journal “The city is much larger than they said, but still no larger than Shlisselburg.” The commandant refused the offer to surrender. After an artillery shelling that lasted all night, the Russians launched an attack that ended with the capture of the fortress. So the Russians once again established a firm foothold at the mouth of the Neva. In the area of Nyenschanz, on May 16, 1703, Tsar Peter I founded St. Petersburg - the future capital of Russia (See "Peter and Paul Fortress"). The beginning of a new stage in Russian history is associated with the birth of this great city.
Battle at the mouth of the Neva (1703). But before this, on May 7, 1703, another significant event occurred in the Nyenschanz area. On May 5, 1703, two Swedish ships “Astrild” and “Gedan” approached the mouth of the Neva and positioned themselves opposite Nyenskans. The plan for their capture was developed by Peter I. He divided his forces into 2 detachments of 30 boats. One of them was headed by the tsar himself - bombardier captain Pyotr Mikhailov, the other - by his closest associate - Lieutenant Menshikov. On May 7, 1703, they attacked Swedish ships, which were armed with 18 cannons. The crews of the Russian boats had only guns and grenades. But the courage and daring onslaught of Russian soldiers exceeded all expectations. Both Swedish ships were boarded, and their crews were almost completely destroyed in a merciless battle (only 13 people survived). This was Peter's first naval victory, which brought him into indescribable delight. “Two enemy ships were captured! An unprecedented victory!” wrote the happy king. In honor of this small, but unusually dear victory for him, Peter ordered a special medal to be knocked out with the inscription: “The impossible happens.”
Battle on the Sestra River (1703). During the campaign of 1703, the Russians had to repel the onslaught of the Swedes from the north, from the Karelian Isthmus. In July, a 4,000-strong Swedish detachment under the command of General Kroniort moved from Vyborg to try to recapture the mouth of the Neva from the Russians. On July 9, 1703, in the area of the Sister River, the Swedes were stopped by 6 Russian regiments (including two guards regiments - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky) under the command of Tsar Peter I. In a fierce battle, Kroniort’s detachment lost 2 thousand people. (half the composition) and was forced to hastily retreat to Vyborg.
Capture of Dorpat (1704). The year 1704 was marked by new successes of the Russian troops. The main events of this campaign were the capture of Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva. In June, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev (23 thousand people) besieged Dorpat. The city was defended by a 5,000-strong Swedish garrison. To speed up the capture of Dorpat, Tsar Peter I arrived here in early July and led the siege work.
The assault began on the night of July 12-13 after a powerful artillery barrage - a “fiery feast” (in Peter’s words). Infantry poured into the holes made by the cannonballs in the wall and captured the main fortifications. After this, the garrison stopped resisting. Paying tribute to the courage of the Swedish soldiers and officers, Peter allowed them to leave the fortress. The Swedes were provided with a month's supply of food and carts for the removal of property. The Russians lost 700 people during the attack, the Swedes - about 2 thousand people. The tsar celebrated the return of the “ancestral city” (on the site of Dorpat there was the ancient Slavic city of Yuriev) by firing cannons three times and went to the siege of Narva.
Capture of Narva (1704). On June 27, Russian troops besieged Narva. The fortress was defended by a Swedish garrison (4.8 thousand people) under the command of General Gorn. He refused the offer to surrender, reminding the besiegers of their failure near Narva in 1700. Tsar Peter I specifically ordered this arrogant answer to be read to his troops before the attack.
The general assault on the city, in which Peter also took part, took place on August 9. It lasted only 45 minutes, but was very brutal. Having no order to surrender, the Swedes did not surrender and continued to fight desperately. This was one of the reasons for the merciless massacre carried out by Russian soldiers in the heat of battle. Peter considered the Swedish commandant Horn to be its culprit, who did not stop the senseless resistance of his soldiers in time. Over half of the Swedish soldiers were killed. To stop the violence, Peter was forced to intervene himself, stabbing one of his soldiers with a sword. Showing his bloody sword to the captured Gorn, the Tsar declared: “Look, this blood is not Swedish, but Russian. I stabbed my own to stop the rage to which you brought my soldiers with your stubbornness.”
So, in 1701-1704. The Russians cleared the Neva basin of the Swedes, took Dorpat, Narva, Noteburg (Oreshek) and actually recaptured all the lands lost by Russia in the Baltic states in the 17th century. (See "Russian-Swedish Wars"). At the same time, their development was carried out. In 1703, the fortresses of St. Petersburg and Kronstadt were founded, and the creation of the Baltic Fleet began at the Ladoga shipyards. Peter took an active part in the creation of the northern capital. According to the Brunswick resident Weber, the Tsar once, when launching another ship, said the following words: “None of us, brothers, even dreamed about thirty years ago that we would do carpentry here, build a city, live to see and Russian brave soldiers, and sailors, and many of our sons who returned from foreign lands smart, we will live to see that you and I will be respected by foreign sovereigns... Let's hope that, perhaps, in our lifetime we will raise the Russian name to the highest degree of glory."
Battle of Gemauerthof (1705). Campaigns 1705-1708 in the northwestern theater of military operations were less intense. The Russians actually fulfilled their original war goals - access to the Baltic Sea and the return of Russian lands captured by Sweden in the past. Therefore, Peter’s main energy at that time was aimed at the economic development of these territories. The Russian army actually controlled the main part of the eastern Baltic, where only a few fortresses remained in the hands of the Swedes, of which two key ones were Revel (Tallinn) and Riga. The regions of Livonia and Estland (the territories of present-day Estonia and Latvia), according to the original agreement with King Augustus II, were to come under his control. Peter was not interested in shedding Russian blood and then handing over the conquered lands to his ally. The largest battle of 1705 was the battle of Gemauerthof, in Courland (western Latvia). It took place on July 15, 1705 between the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev and the Swedish army under the command of General Levenhaupt. Without waiting for his infantry to arrive, Sheremetev attacked the Swedes only with cavalry forces. After a short battle, Leventhaupt's army retreated to the forest, where they took up defensive positions. The Russian cavalrymen, instead of continuing the battle, rushed to plunder the Swedish convoy they had inherited. This gave the Swedes the opportunity to recover, regroup their forces and strike at the approaching Russian infantry. Having crushed it, the Swedish soldiers forced the cavalry, which was busy dividing up the spoils, to flee. The Russians retreated, losing over 2.8 thousand people. (of which more than half were killed). The convoy with guns was also abandoned. But this tactical success was not of great importance for the Swedes, since an army led by Tsar Peter I was already coming to the aid of Sheremetev. Fearing the encirclement of his army in Courland, Leventhaupt was forced to hastily leave this region and retreat to Riga.
Battle for Kotlin Island (1705). In the same year, the Swedes tried to stop the economic fervor of the Russians in the returned lands. In May 1705, a Swedish squadron (22 warships with a landing force) under the command of Admiral Ankerstern appeared in the area of Kotlin Island, where the Russian naval base - Kronstadt - was being created. The Swedes landed troops on the island. However, the local garrison, headed by Colonel Tolbukhin, was not at a loss and boldly entered into battle with the paratroopers. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians opened fire on the attackers from cover and inflicted significant damage on them. Tolbukhin then led his soldiers in a counterattack. After a fierce hand-to-hand fight, the Swedish troops were thrown into the sea. Swedes' losses amounted to about 1 thousand people. Russian damage - 124 people. Meanwhile, a Russian squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Kruys (8 ships and 7 galleys) came to the aid of the Kotlin residents. She attacked the Swedish fleet, which, after the defeat of its landing force, was forced to leave the Kotlin area and retreated to its bases in Finland.
The Swedes' campaign against St. Petersburg (1708). A new and last major outbreak of Swedish activity in the northwestern theater of military operations occurred in the fall of 1708 during the campaign of Charles XII against Russia (1708-1709). In October 1708, a large Swedish corps under the command of General Lübecker (13 thousand people) moved from the Vyborg region to St. Petersburg, trying to capture the future Russian capital. The city was defended by a garrison under the command of Admiral Apraksin. During fierce fighting, he repelled several Swedish attacks. Despite the desperate attempts of the Swedes to dislodge the Russian army from their positions and capture the city, Lübecker failed to achieve success. Having lost a third of their corps (4 thousand people) after hot battles with the Russians, the Swedes, fearing encirclement, were forced to evacuate by sea. Before loading onto the ships, Lübecker, who was unable to take the cavalry with him, ordered the destruction of 6 thousand horses. This was the last and most significant attempt by the Swedes to take possession of St. Petersburg. Peter I attached great importance to this victory. In her honor, he ordered a special medal with a portrait of Apraksin to be knocked out. The inscription on it read: “Keeping this does not sleep; death is better than infidelity. 1708.”
Western Theater of Operations (1701-1707)
We are talking about military operations on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Germany. Here events took an unfavorable turn for Peter's ally, Augustus II. Military operations began with the invasion of Saxon troops into Livonia in the winter of 1700 and the Danish attack on the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, allied with Sweden. In July 1701, Charles XII defeated the Polish-Saxon army near Riga. Then the Swedish king invaded Poland with his army, defeated a larger Polish-Saxon army at Kliszow (1702) and captured Warsaw. During 1702-1704, a small but well-organized Swedish army methodically recaptured province after province from Augustus. In the end, Charles XII achieved the election of his protege, Stanislav Leszczynski, to the Polish throne. In the summer of 1706, the Swedish king ousted the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Ogilvi from Lithuania and Courland. Not accepting the battle, the Russians retreated to Belarus, to Pinsk.
After this, Charles XII deals the final blow to the forces of Augustus II in Saxony. The Swedish invasion of Saxony ends with the capture of Leipzig and the surrender of Augustus II. August concludes the Peace of Altranstadt with the Swedes (1706) and renounces the Polish throne in favor of Stanislav Leszczynski. As a result, Peter I loses his last ally and is left alone with the successful and formidable Swedish king. In 1707, Charles XII withdraws his troops from Saxony to Poland and begins to prepare for a campaign against Russia. Among the battles of this period in which the Russians took an active part, we can highlight the battles of Fraunstadt and Kalisz.
Battle of Fraunstadt (1706). On February 13, 1706, near Fraunstadt in the eastern part of Germany, a battle took place between the Russian-Saxon army under the command of General Schulenburg (20 thousand people) and the Swedish corps under the command of General Reinschild (12 thousand people). Taking advantage of the departure of the main Swedish forces led by Charles XII to Courland, the commander of the Russian-Saxon army, General Schulenburg, decided to attack the auxiliary Swedish corps of Reinchild, which threatened the Saxon lands. With a feigned retreat to Fraunstadt, the Swedes forced Schulenburg to leave a strong position, and then attacked his army. The Swedish cavalry played a decisive role in the battle. She bypassed the Saxon regiments and with a blow to the rear put them to flight.
Despite almost double superiority, the Allies suffered a crushing defeat. The most stubborn resistance was provided by the Russian division under the command of General Vostromirsky, which steadfastly fought back for 4 hours. Most of the Russians died in this battle (including Vostromirsky himself). Only a few managed to escape. The allied army lost 14 thousand people, of which 8 thousand were prisoners. The Swedes did not take Russian prisoners. Swedes' losses amounted to 1.4 thousand people. After the defeat at Fraunstadt, King Augustus II, an ally of Peter I, fled to Krakow. Meanwhile, Charles XII, uniting with parts of Rheinschild, took possession of Saxony and obtained from Augustus II the conclusion of the Peace of Altranstadt.
Battle of Kalisz (1706). On October 18, 1706, near the city of Kalisz in Poland, a battle took place between the Russian-Polish-Saxon army under the command of Prince Menshikov and the Polish king Augustus II (17 thousand Russian dragoons and 15 thousand Polish cavalrymen - supporters of Augustus II) with the Polish-Swedish corps under the command of General Mardenfeld (8 thousand Swedes and 20 thousand Poles - supporters of Stanislav Leshinsky). Menshikov moved after the army of Charles XII, which was marching to Saxony to join the army of Reinchild. At Kalisz, Menshikov met with Mardenfeld's corps and gave it battle.
At the beginning of the battle, the Russians were confused by the onslaught of the Swedes. But, carried away by the attack, the Swedish cavalry left its infantry without cover, which Menshikov took advantage of. He dismounted several of his dragoon squadrons and attacked the Swedish infantry. The Swedes' allies - supporters of King Stanislav Leshinsky - fought reluctantly and fled from the battlefield at the first onslaught of Russian regiments. After a three-hour battle, the Swedes suffered a crushing defeat. Their losses amounted to 1 thousand killed and 4 thousand prisoners, among whom was Mardenfeld himself. The Russians lost 400 people. At a critical moment in the battle, Menshikov himself led the attack and was wounded. Participants in the Battle of Kalisz were awarded a special medal.
This was the largest Russian victory over the Swedes in the first six years of the Northern War. “I’m not reporting this as praise,” Menshikov wrote to the Tsar, “this battle was so unprecedented that it was joyful to watch how they regularly fought on both sides, and it was extremely wonderful to see how the entire field was covered with dead bodies.” True, the Russian triumph was short-lived. The success of this battle was nullified by the separate Peace of Altranstadt concluded by King Augustus II.
Charles XII's campaign against Russia (1708-1709)
Having defeated the allies of Peter I and secured a reliable rear in Poland, Charles XII set out on a campaign against Russia. In January 1708, a 45,000-strong Swedish army led by the invincible king crossed the Vistula and moved towards Moscow. According to the plan drawn up by Peter I in the town of Zholkiev, the Russian army was supposed to avoid decisive battles and exhaust the Swedes in defensive battles, thereby creating conditions for the subsequent transition to a counteroffensive.
The past years have not been in vain. By that time, military reform was completed in Russia and a regular army was created. Before this, the country had regular units (streltsy, foreign regiments). But they remained one of the components of the army. The remaining troops did not exist on a permanent basis, but had the character of insufficiently organized and disciplined militias, which were assembled only for the duration of military operations. Peter put an end to this dual system. Military service has become a lifelong profession for all officers and soldiers. It became mandatory for nobles. For other classes (except for the clergy), since 1705, recruitment into the army for lifelong service was organized: one recruit from a certain number of households. The previous types of military formations were liquidated: noble militias, archers, etc. The army received a unified structure and command. The principle of its placement also changed. Previously, military personnel usually served in places where they lived, started families and farms there. Now the troops were stationed in different parts of the country.
To train officers, several special schools are being created (navigation, artillery, engineering). But the main way to obtain an officer rank is service, starting from a private, regardless of class. Now both the nobleman and his slave began to serve from the lower rank. True, for nobles the period of service from privates to officers was much shorter than for representatives of other classes. The children of the highest nobility received even greater relief; they were used to staff the guard regiments, which also became major suppliers of officers. It was possible to enroll in the guard as a private from birth, so that upon reaching adulthood, the noble guardsman seemed to already have length of service and received a lower officer rank.
The implementation of military reform is inseparable from the events of the Northern War, which became that long-term, practical combat school in which a new type of army was born and tempered. His new organization enshrined the Military Regulations (1716). In fact, Peter completed the reorganization of the Russian army, which had been going on since the 30s of the 17th century. By 1709, the rearmament of the army was completed based on the latest achievements of military technology: the infantry received smooth-bore rifles with a bayonet, hand grenades, the cavalry received carbines, pistols, broadswords, and the artillery received the latest types of guns. Noticeable changes have also occurred in the development of the industrial base. Thus, a powerful metallurgical industry is being created in the Urals, which has made it possible to significantly increase the production of weapons. If at the beginning of the war Sweden had military and economic superiority over Russia, now the situation is leveling out.
At first, Peter only sought the return of lands seized by Sweden from Russia in Time of Troubles; he was ready to be content even with the mouth of the Neva. However, stubbornness and self-confidence prevented Charles XII from accepting these proposals. European powers also contributed to the intransigence of the Swedes. Many of them did not want Charles’s quick victory in the east, after which he would be able to intervene in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) that was then sweeping the Old World. On the other hand, Europe did not want the strengthening of Russia, and the tsar’s activities in this direction were met there, according to the historian N.I. Kostomarov, “envy and fear.” And Peter himself considered it a “miracle of God” that Europe overlooked and allowed Russia to become stronger. However, the leading powers were then absorbed in the struggle for the division of Spanish possessions.
Battle of Golovchin (1708). In June 1708, the army of Charles XII crossed the Berezina River. On July 3, a battle took place near Golovchin between Swedish and Russian troops. The Russian commanders - Prince Menshikov and Field Marshal Sheremetev, trying to prevent the Swedish army from reaching the Dnieper, did not shy away from battle this time. On the Swedish side, 30 thousand people took part in the Golovchin case, on the Russian side - 28 thousand people. Believing the defector's information about the Swedes' plans, the Russians strengthened their right flank. Karl delivered the main blow to the Russian left flank, where General Repnin’s division was stationed.
In heavy rain and fog, the Swedes crossed the Babich River on pontoons, and then, having passed the swamp, unexpectedly attacked Repnin's division. The battle took place in dense thickets, which hampered the command and control of troops, as well as the actions of cavalry and artillery. Repnin's division could not withstand the Swedish onslaught and retreated in disarray to the forest, abandoning the guns. Fortunately for the Russians, the swampy terrain made it difficult for the Swedes to pursue. Then the Swedish cavalry attacked the Russian cavalry of General Goltz, which, after a heated skirmish, also retreated. In this battle, Charles XII almost died. His horse got stuck in a swamp, and the Swedish soldiers with great difficulty pulled the king out of the quagmire. In the Battle of Golovchin, Russian troops actually did not have a single command, which did not allow them to organize clear interaction between units. Despite the defeat, the Russian army retreated in a fairly organized manner. Russian losses amounted to 1.7 thousand people, Swedes - 1.5 thousand people.
The Battle of Golovchin was the last major success of Charles XII in the war with Russia. After analyzing the circumstances of the case, the tsar demoted General Repnin to the rank and file and ordered him to reimburse the cost of the guns lost in battle from his personal funds. (Subsequently, for courage in the Battle of Lesnaya, Repnin was reinstated in rank.) The failure at Golovchin allowed the Russian command to more clearly see the vulnerabilities of their army and better prepare for new battles. After this victory, the Swedish army crossed the Dnieper at Mogilev and stopped awaiting the approach of General Leventhaupt’s corps from the Baltic States, which carried a huge supply of food and ammunition to the royal army on 7 thousand carts. During this period, the Russians had two hot vanguard skirmishes with the Swedes at Dobroe and Raevka .
Battle of the Good (1708). On August 29, 1708, near the village of Dobroye, near Mstislavl, a battle took place between a Russian detachment under the command of Prince Golitsyn and the Swedish vanguard under the command of General Roos (6 thousand people). Taking advantage of the fact that one of the Swedish units moved away from the main forces, Tsar Peter I sent a detachment of Prince Golitsyn against him. At 6 o'clock in the morning, under the cover of heavy fog, the Russians quietly approached the Swedish detachment and opened heavy fire on it. Roos's detachment lost 3 thousand people. (half of its staff). The Russians were prevented from pursuing him by the swampy terrain, which impeded the actions of the cavalry. Only the arrival of the main forces of the Swedes, led by King Charles XII, saved Ross's detachment from complete destruction. The Russians retreated in an orderly manner, losing only 375 people in this battle. This was the first successful battle of the Russians against the Swedes, who fought in the presence of King Charles XII. Peter praised the battle of Dobroy very highly. “Just as I began to serve, I have never heard or seen such fire and decent action from our soldiers... And the king of Sweden himself has never seen anything like this from anyone else in this war,” the tsar wrote.
Battle of Raevka (1708). 12 days later, on September 10, 1708, a new heated skirmish took place between the Swedes and Russians near the village of Raevka. This time they fought: a detachment of Russian dragoons and a Swedish cavalry regiment, the attack of which was led by King Charles XII himself. The Swedes were unable to achieve decisive success and suffered heavy losses. Karl's horse was killed and he was almost captured. There were only five people left in his retinue when the Swedish cavalry came to his aid and managed to repel the attacking Russian dragoons. Tsar Peter I also took part in the battle near the village of Raevka. He was so close to the Swedish monarch that he could see his facial features. This skirmish is significant because after it, Charles XII stopped his offensive movement towards Smolensk. The Swedish king unexpectedly turned his army to Ukraine, where Hetman Mazepa, who had secretly betrayed the Russian Tsar, had called him.
According to a secret agreement with the Swedes, Mazepa was supposed to provide them with provisions and ensure a massive transition of the Cossacks (30-50 thousand people) to the side of Charles XII. Left-bank Ukraine and Smolensk went to Poland, and the hetman himself became the appanage ruler of the Vitebsk and Polotsk voivodeships with the title of prince. Having subjugated Poland, Charles XII now hoped to raise the south of Russia against Moscow: to use the resources of Little Russia, and also to attract under his banner the Don Cossacks, who opposed Peter under the leadership of Ataman Kondraty Bulavin. But at this critical moment of the war, a battle took place that had fatal consequences for the Swedes and had a serious impact on the entire further course of the campaign. We are talking about the Battle of Lesnaya.
Battle of Lesnaya (1708). Slowly but surely, Levenhaupt's soldiers and carts approached the location of the troops of Charles XII, who was eagerly awaiting them for the successful continuation of the campaign. Peter decided under no circumstances to allow Levenhaupt to meet with the king. Having instructed Field Marshal Sheremetev to move after the Swedish army, the Tsar, with a “flying detachment” mounted on horses - a corvolant (12 thousand people) hastily moved towards the corps of General Levengaupt (about 16 thousand people). At the same time, the king sent an order to the cavalry of General Bour (4 thousand people) to join his corvolant.
On September 28, 1708, Peter I overtook Levengaupt's Forest Corps near the village, which had already begun to cross the Lesnyanka River. As the Russians approached, Levengaupt took up positions on the heights near the village of Lesnoy, hoping to fight back here and ensure an unhindered crossing. As for Peter, he did not wait for the approach of Bour’s detachment and attacked Levenhaupt’s corps with his own forces. The fierce battle lasted 10 hours. Russian attacks were followed by Swedish counterattacks. The intensity of the battle turned out to be so high that at one point the opponents fell to the ground from fatigue and rested for a couple of hours right on the battlefield. Then the battle resumed with renewed vigor and lasted until dark. By five o'clock in the afternoon, Bour's detachment arrived at the battlefield.
Having received this solid reinforcement, the Russians pressed the Swedes to the village. Then the Russian cavalry bypassed the left flank of the Swedes and captured the bridge over the Lesnyanka River, cutting off Levengaupt’s path to retreat. However, with a last desperate effort, the Swedish grenadiers managed to repel the crossing with a counterattack. Dusk came and it began to rain and snow. The attackers ran out of ammunition, and the battle turned into hand-to-hand combat. By seven in the evening darkness fell and the snowfall intensified with gusty winds and hail. The fight died down. But the gun duel continued until 10 pm.
The Swedes managed to defend the village and the crossing, but Levengaupt's position was extremely difficult. The Russians spent the night in position, preparing for a new attack. Tsar Peter I was also there with his soldiers in the snow and rain. Not hoping for a successful outcome of the battle, Levenhaupt decided to retreat with the remnants of his corps. To mislead the Russians, the Swedish soldiers built bivouac fires, and they themselves, abandoning the carts and the wounded, mounted the baggage horses and began a hasty retreat. Having discovered the abandoned Swedish camp the next morning, Peter sent a detachment of General Pflug in pursuit of the retreating ones. He overtook the remnants of the Swedish corps in Propoisk and inflicted a final defeat on them. The total losses of the Swedes amounted to 8 thousand killed and about 1 thousand captured. In addition, in the ranks of the previously valiant Swedes, there were many deserters. Levenhaupt brought only 6 thousand people to Charles XII. Russian damage - 4 thousand people.
After the Forest, the army of Charles XII lost significant material resources and was cut off from its bases in the Baltic states. This finally thwarted the king’s plans to march on Moscow. The Battle of Lesnaya boosted the morale of the Russian troops, as it was their first major victory over the numerically equal regular Swedish forces. “And truly it is the fault of all the successful successes of Russia,” - this is how Peter I assessed the significance of this battle. He called the battle at Lesnaya “the mother of the Poltava battle.” A special medal was issued for the participants in this battle.
Destruction of Baturin (1708). Having learned about the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa and his defection to the side of Charles XII, Peter I urgently sent a detachment under the command of Prince Menshikov to the Baturin fortress. Thus, the tsar sought to forestall the occupation of this central hetman's residence by the Swedish army, where there were significant supplies of food and ammunition. On November 1, 1708, Menshikov’s detachment approached Baturin. There was a garrison in the fortress led by Colonel Chechel. He refused the offer to open the gate and tried to drag out the matter with negotiations. However, Menshikov, who was expecting the approach of the Swedish troops from hour to hour, did not fall for such a trick and gave Chechel the opportunity to think only until the morning. The next day, having received no answer, the Russians stormed the fortress. Among her defenders there was no unity in attitude towards Mazepa. After two hours of shelling and attack, Baturin fell. According to legend, one of the local regimental elders showed the way to the royal troops through a secret gate in the wall. Due to the unreliability of Baturin’s wooden fortifications, Menshikov did not leave his garrison in the fortress, but destroyed the traitor’s residence, setting it on fire.
The fall of Baturin was a new heavy blow for Charles XII and Mazepa. After Lesnaya, it was here that the Swedish army hoped to replenish its supplies of food and ammunition, which it experienced a serious shortage of. Menshikov's quick and decisive actions to capture Baturyn had a demoralizing effect on the hetman and his supporters.
Having crossed the Desna and entered the territory of Ukraine, the Swedes realized that the Ukrainian people were not at all inclined to greet them as their liberators. The king's hopes for regional separatism and a split in the Eastern Slavs did not materialize. In Little Russia, only a part of the elders and the Cossacks went over to the side of the Swedes, fearing the destruction (as on the Don) of their Cossack freemen. Instead of the promised huge 50,000-strong Cossack army, Charles received only about 2,000 morally unstable traitors who were looking only for petty personal gain in the great struggle between two powerful rivals. The bulk of the population did not respond to the calls of Karl and Mazepa.
Defense of Veprik (1709). At the end of 1708, the forces of Charles XII in Ukraine concentrated in the area of Gadyach, Romen and Lokhvits. Around the Swedish army, Russian units settled in winter quarters in a semicircle. The winter of 1708/09 was one of the harshest in European history. According to contemporaries, at that time the frosts in Ukraine were so severe that birds froze in flight. Charles XII found himself in an extremely difficult situation. Never before in its history has the Swedish army moved so far from its homeland. Surrounded by a hostile population, cut off from supply bases, and without food or ammunition, the Swedes suffered severe hardships. On the other hand, the retreat of the Swedish army from Ukraine in conditions of severe cold, long distances and persecution by the Russians could turn into a disaster. In this critical situation, Charles XII made a decision traditional for his military doctrine - an active attack on the enemy. The Swedish king is making a desperate attempt to seize the initiative and oust the Russians from Ukraine in order to gain control over this region and forcefully win the local population to his side. The Swedes strike the first blow in the direction of Belgorod - the most important junction of roads leading from Russia to Ukraine.
However, the invaders immediately had to face remarkable resistance. Already at the beginning of the journey, the Swedes stumbled over the courageous resistance of the small Veprik fortress, which was defended by a 1.5-thousand Russian-Ukrainian garrison. On December 27, 1708, the besieged rejected the offer to surrender and heroically fought back for two days, forcing the Swedes to retreat into an unprecedentedly severe cold. After the New Year, when the frosts subsided, Charles XII again approached Veprik. By that time, its defenders had poured water on the ramparts, so that it turned into an ice mountain.
On January 7, 1709, the Swedes launched a new attack. But the besieged fought steadfastly: they hit the attackers with shots, stones, and doused them with boiling water. The Swedish cannonballs bounced off the icy fortress and caused damage to the attackers themselves. In the evening, Charles XII ordered the senseless assault to be stopped and again sent an envoy to the besieged with an offer to surrender, promising to save their lives and property. Otherwise, he threatened to leave no one alive. The defenders of Veprik ran out of gunpowder and capitulated. The king kept his promise and, in addition, gave each prisoner 10 Polish zlotys as a sign of respect for their courage. The fortress was burned by the Swedes. They lost more than 1 thousand people and a considerable amount of ammunition during the assault. Veprik's heroic resistance thwarted the Swedes' plans. After the surrender of Veprik, the commandants of the Ukrainian fortresses received an order from Tsar Peter I not to enter into any agreements with the Swedes and to hold out to the last man.
Battle of Krasny Kut (1709). Karl launches a new offensive. The central moment of this campaign was the battle near the town of Krasny Kut (Bogodukhov district). On February 11, 1709, a battle took place here between Swedish troops under the command of King Charles XII and Russian regiments under the command of generals Schaumburg and Rehn. The Swedes attacked Krasny Kut, where General Schaumburg was stationed with 7 dragoon regiments. The Russians could not withstand the Swedish onslaught and retreated to Gorodnya. But at this time General Ren arrived to their aid with 6 dragoon squadrons and 2 guard battalions. Fresh Russian units counterattacked the Swedes, recaptured the dam from them and surrounded the detachment led by Charles XII at the mill. However, the onset of night prevented Ren from launching an assault on the mill and capturing the Swedish king.
Meanwhile, the Swedes recovered from the blow. General Cruz gathered his battered troops and moved with them to save the king. Ren did not get involved in a new battle and went to Bogodukhov. Apparently, in retaliation for the fear he experienced, Charles XII ordered to burn Red Kut and expel all the inhabitants from there. The Battle of Krasny Kug ended the Swedish king’s campaign in Sloboda Ukraine, which brought nothing to his army except new losses. A few days later, the Swedes left this region and retreated across the Vorskla River. Meanwhile, Russian troops under the command of generals Gulits and Golitsyn, operating on the right bank of the Dnieper, were defeated in the battle of Podkamen Polish army Stanislav Leshchinsky. Thus, the troops of Charles XII were completely cut off from communications with Poland.
At that time, Peter did not give up hope for a peaceful outcome of the campaign and, through parliamentarians, continued to offer his conditions to Charles XII, which boiled down mainly to the return of part of Karelia and the Neva basin with St. Petersburg. In addition, the king was ready to pay an indemnity for the lands ceded by the king. In response, the intractable Karl demanded that Russia first reimburse all costs incurred by Sweden during the war, which he estimated at 1 million rubles. By the way, the Swedish envoy, on behalf of Charles XII, then asked Peter for permission to buy medicine and wine for the Swedish army. Peter immediately sent both free of charge to his main rival.
Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich (1709). With the onset of spring, the actions of Russian troops intensify. In April - May 1709, they carried out an operation against the Zaporozhye Sich - the last stronghold of the Mazeppians in Ukraine. After the Cossacks, led by Koshevo ataman Gordienko, went over to the side of the Swedes, Peter I sent Yakovlev’s detachment (2 thousand people) against them. On April 18, he arrived at Perevolochna, where the most convenient crossing across the Dnieper was located. Having taken Perevolochna after a two-hour battle, Yakovlev’s detachment destroyed all the fortifications, warehouses and transportation facilities there. Then he moved towards the Sich itself. It had to be stormed by boats. The first attack ended in failure, mainly due to poor knowledge of the area. Having lost up to 300 people. killed and even more wounded, the tsarist troops were forced to retreat.
Meanwhile, on May 18, 1709, reinforcements led by Colonel Ignat Galagan, a former Cossack, approached Yakovlev. Galagan, who knew the area well, organized a new attack, which was successful. The tsarist troops broke into the Sich and after a short battle forced the Cossacks to capitulate. 300 people surrendered. Yakovlev ordered the noble prisoners to be sent to the tsar, and executed the rest on the spot as traitors. By royal order, the Zaporozhye Sich was burned and destroyed.
Siege of Poltava (1709). In the spring of 1709, Charles XII made another decisive attempt to seize the strategic initiative. In April, a 35,000-strong Swedish army besieged Poltava. If the city was captured, a threat was created to Voronezh, the largest base of the army and navy. By this, the king could attract Turkey to the division of the southern Russian borders. It is known that the Crimean Khan actively proposed to the Turkish Sultan to act against the Russians in alliance with Charles XII and Stanislav Leszczynski. The possible creation of a Swedish-Polish-Turkish alliance would drive Russia into a situation similar to the events of the Livonian War. Moreover, unlike Ivan IV, Peter I had more significant internal opposition. It included broad sections of society, dissatisfied not only with the increase in hardships, but also with the reforms being carried out. The defeat of the Russians in the south could end with a general defeat in the Northern War, a Swedish protectorate over Ukraine and the dismemberment of Russia into separate principalities, which is what Charles XII ultimately sought.
However, the persistent Poltava garrison (6 thousand soldiers and armed citizens), led by Colonel Kelin, refused the demand to surrender. Then the king decided to take the city by storm. The Swedes tried to make up for the lack of gunpowder for shelling with a decisive attack. The battles for the fortress were fierce. Sometimes the Swedish grenadiers managed to climb the ramparts. Then the townspeople hurried to help the soldiers, and with joint efforts the attack was repelled. The fortress garrison constantly felt support from outside. So, during the period of siege work, a detachment under the command of Prince Menshikov crossed to the right bank of the Vorskla and attacked the Swedes in Oposhna. Karl had to go there to help, which gave Kelin the opportunity to organize a sortie and destroy the tunnel under the fortress. On May 16, a detachment under the command of Colonel Golovin (900 people) entered Poltava. At the end of May, the main Russian forces, led by Tsar Peter I, approached Poltava.
The Swedes turned from besiegers to besieged. In their rear were Russian-Ukrainian troops under the command of Hetman Skoropadsky and Prince Dolgoruky, and opposite stood the army of Peter I. On June 20, it crossed to the right bank of the Vorskla and began to prepare for battle. Under these conditions, the Swedish king, who had already gone too far in his military passion, could only be saved by victory. On June 21-22, he made a last desperate attempt to take Poltava, but the defenders of the fortress courageously repelled this attack. During the assault, the Swedes wasted all their gun ammunition and actually lost their artillery. The heroic defense of Poltava exhausted the resources of the Swedish army. She did not allow him to seize the strategic initiative, giving the Russian army the necessary time to prepare for a general battle.
Surrender of the Swedes at Perevolochna (1709). After the Battle of Poltava, the defeated Swedish army began to quickly retreat to the Dnieper. If the Russians had relentlessly pursued him, it is unlikely that even a single Swedish soldier would have managed to escape from Russian borders. However, Peter was so carried away by the feast of joy after such a significant success that it was only in the evening that he realized to start the chase. But the Swedish army had already managed to break away from its pursuers; on June 29 it reached the bank of the Dnieper near Perevolochna. On the night of June 29-30, only King Charles XII and former Hetman Mazepa with a detachment of up to 2 thousand people managed to cross the river. There were no ships for the rest of the Swedes, which were destroyed in advance by Colonel Yakovlev’s detachment during his campaign against the Zaporozhye Sich. Before fleeing, the king appointed General Leventhaupt as commander of the remnants of his army, who received orders to retreat to Turkish possessions on foot.
On the morning of June 30, Russian cavalry under the command of Prince Menshikov (9 thousand people) approached Perevolochna. Levenhaupt tried to drag out the matter with negotiations, but Menshikov, on behalf of the Russian Tsar, demanded immediate surrender. Meanwhile, demoralized Swedish soldiers began to move in groups to the Russian camp and surrender, without waiting for the start of a possible battle. Realizing that his army was incapable of resistance, Levenhaupt capitulated.
4 cavalry regiments led by Brigadier Kropotov and General Volkonsky went to capture Karl and Mazepa. Having combed the steppe, they overtook the fugitives on the banks of the Southern Bug. The Swedish detachment of 900 people, who did not have time to cross, surrendered after a short skirmish. But Karl and Mazepa had already managed to move to the right bank by that time. They took refuge from their pursuers in the Turkish fortress of Ochakov, and the final Russian triumph in the Northern War was postponed indefinitely. However, during the Russian campaign, Sweden lost such a brilliant personnel army, which it would never have again.
Northwestern and Western theater of military operations (1710-1713)
The liquidation of the Swedish army near Poltava dramatically changed the course of the Northern War. Former allies are returning to the camp of the Russian Tsar. They also included Prussia, Mecklenburg and Hanover, who wanted to gain Swedish possessions in northern Germany. Now Peter I, whose army occupied a dominant position in the eastern part of Europe, could confidently hope not only for a successful outcome of the war for him, but also for more favorable peace conditions.
From now on, the Russian Tsar was no longer limited to the desire to take away from Sweden the lands lost by Russia in the past, but, like Ivan the Terrible, decided to achieve possession of the Baltic states. Moreover, another contender for these lands - the Polish king Augustus II, after the failures he experienced, was not able to seriously interfere with the plans of Peter, who not only did not punish his unfaithful ally, but also generously returned the Polish crown to him. The new division of the Baltic states between Peter and Augustus was recorded in the Treaty of Torun (1709) signed by them. It provided for the assignment of Estland to Russia, and Livonia to Augustus. This time Peter did not put the matter off for a long time. Having dealt with Charles XII, Russian troops, even before the cold weather, march from Ukraine to the Baltic states. Their main goal is Riga.
Capture of Riga (1710). In October 1709, a 30,000-strong army under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev besieged Riga. The city was defended by a Swedish garrison under the command of the commandant, Count Strömberg (11 thousand people, as well as detachments of armed citizens). On November 14, the bombing of the city began. The first three volleys were fired by Tsar Peter I, who arrived to join the troops. But soon, due to the onset of cold weather, Sheremetev withdrew the army to winter quarters, leaving a seven-thousand-strong corps under the command of General Repnin to blockade the city.
On March 11, 1710, Sheremetev and his army returned to Riga. This time the fortress was also blocked from the sea. Attempts by the Swedish fleet to break through to the besieged were repulsed. Despite this, the garrison not only did not surrender, but also made daring forays. To strengthen the blockade, the Russians, after a hot battle on May 30, drove the Swedes out of the suburbs. By that time, famine and a massive plague epidemic had already reigned in the city. Under these conditions, Strömberg was forced to agree to the surrender proposed by Sheremetev. On July 4, 1710, Russian regiments entered Riga after a 232-day siege. 5132 people were captured, the rest died during the siege. Russian losses amounted to almost a third of the siege army - about 10 thousand people. (mainly from the plague epidemic). Following Riga, the last Swedish strongholds in the Baltic states - Pernov (Pärnu) and Revel (Tallinn) - soon surrendered. From now on, the Baltic states came completely under Russian control. A special medal was struck in honor of the capture of Riga.
Capture of Vyborg (1710). Another major event in the northwestern sector of hostilities was the capture of Vyborg. On March 22, 1710, Russian troops under the command of General Apraksin (18 thousand people) besieged this main Swedish port fortress in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland. Vyborg was defended by a 6,000-strong Swedish garrison. On April 28, the fortress was blocked from the sea by a Russian squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Kreutz. Tsar Peter I arrived with the squadron to the Russian troops, who ordered excavation work to begin for the installation of batteries. On June 1, regular bombardment of the fortress began. The assault was scheduled for June 9. But after a five-day shelling, the Vyborg garrison, not hoping for outside help, entered into negotiations and capitulated on June 13, 1710.
The capture of Vyborg allowed the Russians to control the entire Karelian Isthmus. As a result, according to Tsar Peter I, “a strong cushion was built for St. Petersburg,” which was now reliably protected from Swedish attacks from the north. The capture of Vyborg created the basis for subsequent offensive actions of Russian troops in Finland. In addition, Russian troops occupied Poland in 1710, which allowed King Augustus II to retake the Polish throne. Stanislav Leshchinsky fled to the Swedes. However, further successes of Russian weapons were temporarily suspended by the beginning Russian-Turkish war(1710-1713). Its insufficiently successful outcome did not affect the successful continuation of the Northern War. In 1712, Peter's troops moved the fighting to Swedish possessions in northern Germany.
Battle of Friedrichstadt (1713). Here military operations were not successful enough for Peter’s allies. Thus, in December 1712, the Swedish general Steinbock inflicted a strong defeat on the Danish-Saxon army at Gadebusch. The Russian army led by Tsar Peter I (46 thousand people) came to the aid of the allies. Steinbock's troops (16 thousand people) meanwhile took up positions near Friedrichstadt. Here the Swedes destroyed the dams, flooded the area and created fortifications on the dams. Peter carefully examined the area of the proposed battle and himself drew up the disposition of the battle. But when the king invited his allies to start a battle, the Danes and Saxons, who had been beaten by the Swedes more than once, refused to participate in it, considering the attack on the Swedish positions reckless. Then Peter decided to attack the Swedish positions only on his own. The tsar not only developed the battle disposition, but also personally led his soldiers into battle on January 30, 1713.
The attackers moved along a narrow dam, which was fired upon by Swedish artillery. The clay, which had become soggy from the water, made it difficult to advance on a wide front. It turned out to be so sticky and viscous that it pulled off the boots of soldiers and even tore off the horseshoes of horses. However, the results of Poltava made themselves felt. In this regard, the battle near Friedrichstadt is significant in that it showed how much the Swedes’ attitude towards the Russian soldier had changed. Not a trace remained of their former arrogance. Without providing adequate resistance, the Swedes fled from the battlefield, losing 13 people. killed and 300 people. prisoners who fell to their knees and threw down their guns. The Russians had only 7 people killed. Steinbock took refuge in the Toningen fortress, where he capitulated in the spring of 1713.
Capture of Stettin (1713). Another major Russian victory in the Western Theater of Operations was their capture of Stettin (now the Polish city of Szczecin). Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal Menshikov besieged this powerful Swedish fortress at the mouth of the Oder in June 1712. It was defended by a garrison under the command of Count Meyerfeld (8 thousand soldiers and armed citizens). However, an active siege began in August 1713, when Menshikov received artillery from the Saxons. After intense shelling, fires started in the city, and on September 19, 1713, Meyerfeld capitulated. Stettin, recaptured from the Swedes by the Russians, went to Prussia. The capture of Stettin was the last major victory of Russian troops over the Swedes in northern Germany. After this victory, Peter turned to tasks closer to Russian foreign policy and transferred military operations to the territory of Finland.
Military actions in Finland (1713-1714)
Despite the defeats, Sweden did not give up. Its army controlled Finland, and the Swedish fleet continued to dominate the Baltic Sea. Not wanting to get stuck with his army in the North German lands, where the interests of many European states collided, Peter decides to strike at the Swedes in Finland. The Russian occupation of Finland deprived the Swedish fleet of convenient basing in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea and finally eliminated any threat to Russia's northwestern borders. On the other hand, the possession of Finland became a powerful argument in future bargaining with Sweden, which was then already inclined towards peaceful negotiations. “Not for capture and ruin,” but so that “the Swedish neck would bend more softly,” this is how Peter I defined the goals of the Finnish campaign for his army.
Battle on the Pyalkan River (1713). The first major battle between the Swedes and Russians in Finland took place on October 6, 1713 on the banks of the Pälkane River. The Russians advanced in two detachments under the command of generals Apraksin and Golitsyn (14 thousand people). They were opposed by a Swedish detachment under the command of General Armfeld (7 thousand people). Golitsyn's detachment crossed the lake and started a battle with the Swedish division of General Lambar. Meanwhile, Apraksin's detachment crossed Pyalkin and attacked the main Swedish positions. After a three-hour battle, the Swedes could not withstand the Russian onslaught and retreated, losing up to 4 thousand people killed, wounded and prisoners. The Russians lost about 700 people. A special medal was struck in honor of this victory.
Battle of Lappola (1714). Armfeld retreated to the village of Lappola and, having fortified himself there, waited for the Russians. Despite the harsh conditions of the Finnish winter, Russian troops continued their offensive. On February 19, 1714, a detachment of Prince Golitsyn (8.5 thousand people) approached Lappola. At the beginning of the battle, the Swedes struck with bayonets, but the Russians repulsed their onslaught. Using a new battle formation (four lines instead of two), Golitsyn counterattacked the Swedish army and won a decisive victory. Having lost over 5 thousand people. killed, wounded and captured, Armfeld's detachment retreated to the northern shores of the Gulf of Bothnia (the area of the current Finnish-Swedish border). After the defeat at Lappola, Russian troops achieved control over the main part of Finland. A special medal was struck in honor of this victory.
Battle of Gangut (1714). In order to completely defeat the Swedes in Finland and strike at Sweden itself, it was necessary to neutralize the Swedish fleet, which continued to control the Baltic seas. By that time, the Russians already had a rowing and sailing fleet capable of resisting the Swedish naval forces. In May 1714, at a military council, Tsar Peter developed a plan for breaking through the Russian fleet from the Gulf of Finland and occupying the Åland Islands with the aim of creating a base there for attacks on the Swedish coast.
At the end of May, the Russian rowing fleet under the command of Admiral Apraksin (99 galleys) set off for the Åland Islands for a landing there. At Cape Gangut, at the exit from the Gulf of Finland, the path of the Russian galleys was blocked by the Swedish fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Vatrang (15 battleships, 3 frigates and 11 other ships). Apraksin did not dare to take independent action, due to the serious superiority of the Swedes in forces (primarily in artillery), and reported the current situation to the tsar. On July 20, the king himself arrived at the scene of action. Having examined the area, Peter ordered a portage to be set up in a narrow part of the peninsula (2.5 km) in order to drag some of his ships along it to the other side of the Rilaks Fjord and hit them from there in the rear of the Swedes. In an effort to stop this maneuver, Vatrang sent 10 ships there under the command of Rear Admiral Ehrenskiöld.
On July 26, 1714, there was no wind, which deprived the Swedish sailing ships of freedom of maneuver. Peter took advantage of this. His rowing flotilla oared around Vatrang's fleet and blocked Ehrenskiöld's ships in the Rilaksfjord. The Swedish rear admiral refused the offer to surrender. Then, on July 27, 1714, at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, Russian galleys attacked Swedish ships in Rilaksfjord. The first and second frontal attacks were repelled by Swedish gunfire. For the third time, the galleys finally managed to get close to the Swedish ships, grappled with them, and the Russian sailors rushed to board. “It is truly impossible to describe the courage of the Russian troops,” wrote Peter, “since the boarding was carried out so cruelly that several soldiers were torn apart by enemy cannons not only with cannonballs and grapeshot, but also with the spirit of gunpowder from the cannons.” After a ruthless battle, the main ship of the Swedes, the frigate "Elephant" ("Elephant"), was boarded, and the remaining 10 ships surrendered. Ehrenskiöld tried to escape on a boat, but was caught and captured. The Swedes lost 361 people. killed, the rest (about 1 thousand people) were captured. The Russians lost 124 people. killed and 350 people. wounded. They had no losses in ships.
The Swedish fleet retreated, and the Russians occupied the island of Åland. This success significantly strengthened the position of Russian troops in Finland. Gangut is the first major victory of the Russian fleet. She raised the morale of the troops, showing that the Swedes could be defeated not only on land, but also at sea. Peter equated it in importance to the Battle of Poltava. Although Russian fleet was not yet strong enough to give the Swedes a general battle at sea, but Sweden’s unconditional dominance in the Baltic now came to an end. Participants in the Battle of Gangut were awarded a medal with the inscription “Diligence and loyalty surpass strength.” On September 9, 1714, celebrations on the occasion of the Gangut Victoria took place in St. Petersburg. The winners passed under triumphal arch. It featured an image of an eagle sitting on the back of an elephant. The inscription read: “The Russian eagle does not catch flies.”
Final period of the war (1715-1721)
The goals that Peter pursued in the Northern War had in fact already been achieved. Therefore her The final stage characterized by more diplomatic rather than military intensity. At the end of 1714, Charles XII returned from Turkey to his troops in northern Germany. Unable to successfully continue the war, he begins negotiations. But his death (November 1718 - in Norway) interrupts this process. The “Hessian” party that came to power in Sweden (supporters of Charles XII’s sister Ulrika Eleonora and her husband Friedrich of Hesse) pushed aside the “Holstein” party (supporters of the king’s nephew, Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp) and began to negotiate peace with Russia’s Western allies. In November 1719 A peace treaty was concluded with Hanover, to which the Swedes sold their strongholds on the North Sea - Bremen and Ferden - in exchange for an alliance with England. According to the peace treaty with Prussia (January 1720), the Swedes ceded part of Pomerania with Stettin and the mouth of the Oder, receiving monetary compensation for this. In June 1720, Sweden concluded the Peace of Fredriksborg with Denmark, making significant concessions in Schleswig-Holstein.
Sweden's only rival remains Russia, which does not want to give up the Baltic states. Having secured the support of England, Sweden focuses all its efforts on the fight against the Russians. But the collapse of the anti-Swedish coalition and the threat of an attack by the British fleet did not prevent Peter I from ending the war victoriously. This was helped by the creation of its own strong fleet, which made Sweden vulnerable from the sea. In 1719-1720 Russian troops begin to land near Stockholm, devastating the Swedish coast. Having begun on land, the Northern War ended at sea. The most significant events of this period of the war include the Battle of Ezel and the Battle of Grengam.
Battle of Ezel (1719). On May 24, 1719, near the island of Ezel (Saarema), a naval battle began between a Russian squadron under the command of Captain Senyavin (6 battleships, 1 shnyava) and 3 Swedish ships under the command of Captain Wrangel (1 battleship, 1 frigate, 1 brigantine). Having discovered the Swedish ships, Senyavin boldly attacked them. The Swedes tried to escape persecution, but they failed. Having suffered losses from artillery shelling, they surrendered. The Battle of Ezel was the first victory of the Russian fleet on the high seas without the use of boarding.
Battle of Grenham (1720). On July 27, 1720, off the island of Grengam (one of the Åland Islands), a naval battle took place between the Russian rowing fleet under the command of General Golitsyn (61 galleys) and the Swedish squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Sheblat (1 battleship, 4 frigates and 9 other ships) . Approaching Grengam, Golitsyn's insufficiently armed galleys came under heavy artillery fire from the Swedish squadron and retreated to shallow water. The Swedish ships followed them. In the shallow water area, the more maneuverable Russian galleys launched a decisive counterattack. Russian sailors boldly boarded the ship and captured 4 Swedish frigates in hand-to-hand combat. Sheblat's remaining ships hastily retreated.
The victory at Grenham strengthened the position of the Russian fleet in the eastern part of the Baltic and destroyed Sweden's hopes of defeating Russia at sea. On this occasion, Peter wrote to Menshikov: “True, no small victory can be honored, because in the eyes of the English gentlemen, who defended exactly the Swedes, both their lands and the fleet.” The Battle of Grenham was the last major battle of the Northern War (1700-1721). A medal was struck in honor of the victory at Grenham.
Peace of Nystad (1721). No longer relying on their capabilities, the Swedes resumed negotiations and on August 30, 1721, concluded a peace treaty with the Russians in the town of Nystadt (Uusikaupunki, Finland). According to the Peace of Nystadt, Sweden forever ceded Livonia, Estland, Ingria and part of Karelia and Vyborg to Russia. For this, Peter returned Finland to the Swedes and paid 2 million rubles for the territories received. As a result, Sweden lost its possessions on the eastern shore of the Baltic and a significant part of its possessions in Germany, retaining only part of Pomerania and the island of Rügen. Residents of the annexed lands retained all their rights. So, after a century and a half, Russia fully paid for the failures in the Livonian War. The persistent aspirations of the Moscow tsars to firmly establish themselves on the Baltic shores were finally crowned with major success.
The Northern War gave the Russians access to the Baltic Sea from Riga to Vyborg and allowed their country to become one of the world powers. The Peace of Nystadt radically changed the situation in the eastern Baltic. After centuries of struggle, Russia firmly established itself here, finally crushing the continental blockade of its northwestern borders. The combat losses of the Russian army in the Northern War amounted to 120 thousand people. (of which approximately 30 thousand were killed). The damage from disease has become much more significant. Thus, according to official information, during the entire Northern War, the number of people who died from disease and those who were sick and discharged from the army reached 500 thousand people.
By the end of the reign of Peter I, the Russian army numbered over 200 thousand people. In addition, there were significant Cossack troops, whose service to the state became mandatory. A new type of armed forces for Russia also appeared - the navy. It consisted of 48 battleships, 800 auxiliary ships and 28 thousand people. personnel. The new Russian army, equipped with modern weapons, became one of the most powerful in Europe. Military transformations, as well as wars with the Turks, Swedes and Persians, required significant financial resources. From 1680 to 1725, the cost of maintaining the armed forces increased almost fivefold in real terms and amounted to 2/3 of budget expenditures.
The pre-Petrine era was characterized by constant, grueling border struggles Russian state. Thus, over 263 years (1462-1725) Russia fought over 20 wars on the western borders alone (with Lithuania, Sweden, Poland, and the Livonian Order). They took about 100 years. This is not counting numerous clashes in the eastern and southern directions (Kazan campaigns, repelling constant Crimean raids, Ottoman aggression, etc.). As a result of Peter's victories and reforms, this tense confrontation, which seriously hampered the development of the country, is finally successfully ending. There are no states left among Russia's neighbors that can seriously threaten its national security. This was the main result of Peter's efforts in the military field.
Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
History of the Northern War 1700-1721. M., 1987.
Northern War (1700 - 1721) - the war of Russia and its allies against Sweden for dominance in the Baltic Sea.
Back in the 16-17th centuries. Russia tried to seize access to the Baltic coast. Its main opponent in this struggle was Sweden, whose territory extended to Livonia, Finland and Estland, as well as to the former Russian possessions - the Izhora lands and Karelia.
In 1699, Peter I, Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Fredrick IV, King of Denmark, formed the Northern League; Russia intended to take away Ingria and Karelia from the Swedes, Poland - Livonia and Estland, Denmark laid claim to the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, allied to Sweden. The war began in the winter of 1700 with the invasion of the Danes in Holstein-Gottorp and the Polish-Saxon troops in Livonia.
However, in July 1700, the Swedish king Charles XII, relying on the support of the Anglo-Dutch fleet, landed troops on the island of Zealand, bombarded Copenhagen and forced Fredrick IV to surrender.
On August 18 (August 28, old style) August 1700, the Peace of Travendal was signed: Denmark was forced to recognize the sovereignty of Holstein-Gottorp and withdraw from the Northern League.
After the conclusion of the Peace of Constantinople with the Ottoman Empire on July 13 (23), 1700, he declared war on Sweden and besieged Narva at the end of August, but on November 19 (29), 1700, Charles XII inflicted a crushing defeat on the Russian army near Narva, despite its three-fold numerical superiority.
In the summer of 1701, Charles XII invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with the main forces and conquered Courland; in July 1702, the Swedes occupied Warsaw and defeated the Polish-Saxon army near Kliszow (near Krakow). Charles XII intervened in the internal political struggle in Poland and in July 1704 achieved the deposition of Augustus II by the Polish Sejm and the election of his candidate Stanislav Leszczynski to the throne. Augustus II did not recognize this decision and took refuge in Saxony. In 1705, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into a military alliance with Sweden against Russia.
Taking advantage of the fact that Charles XII was “stuck,” as Peter I put it, in Poland, the Russians launched active offensive operations on the Baltic coast. At the end of 1701, Field Marshal Sheremetev defeated General Schlippenbach at Erestfer, and in July 1702 he defeated him at Gummelsgof and made a successful campaign in Livonia. In October 1702, Russian troops took Noteburg (Shlisselburg), and in April 1703 Nyenschanz at the mouth of the Neva, where St. Petersburg was founded in May; in the same year they captured Koporye and Yamburg, and in 1704 Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva: thus, the “window to Europe” was cut through.
In 1705, Peter I transferred military operations to the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Field Marshal Sheremetev captured Mitava and expelled the Swedes from Courland; Field Marshal Ogilvy entered Lithuania and occupied Grodno. However, at the beginning of 1706, Charles XII pushed Russian troops beyond the Neman, captured most of Volhynia and in July invaded Saxony, forcing Augustus II to the humiliating Peace of Altranstedt on September 13 (24): Augustus II renounced the Polish crown, broke the alliance with Russia, surrendered to the Swedes Krakow and other fortresses. Peter I, left without allies, offered peace to Charles XII on the terms of transferring the mouth of the Neva to Russia, but was refused.
The Battle of Poltava marked a decisive turning point in the war. The Northern League was revived: Fredrick IV violated the Treaty of Travendal, Augustus II violated the Treaty of Altransted; The Danes invaded Holstein-Gottorp, the Saxons invaded Poland. Stanislav Leszczynski took refuge in Pomerania. At the end of April 1709, the Swedish king besieged Poltava. In June, the main forces of the Russian army, led by Peter I, approached the city. In the Battle of Poltava that took place on June 27 (July 8), Charles XII suffered a crushing defeat, losing more than 9 thousand killed and 3 thousand prisoners. On June 30 (July 11), Menshikov forced the remnants of the Swedish army under the command of Levenhaupt to capitulate on the Dnieper; Charles XII managed to escape to the Ottoman Empire.
In February 1710, the Danes attempted to land in Sweden, but failed. In June 1710, Peter I took Vyborg, in July Riga, in September - Revel (Tallinn), establishing full control over Estland, Livonia and Western Karelia.
In the fall of 1710, Charles XII, with the support of France, convinced the Turkish Sultan Ahmet III to declare war on Russia.
On June 12 (23), 1711, Peter I was forced to conclude the difficult Treaty of Prut with the Ottoman Empire, pledging to return Azov to it, demolish all the fortresses he had built on the Sea of Azov and break the alliance with Poland.
In 1712-1714, Russia's allies, with its support, won a number of victories in the European theater of military operations. In 1713-1714, Russia occupied part of the territory of Finland; in August 1714, the Russian galley fleet defeated the Swedish fleet at Cape Gangut and moved to Abo. In July 1717, troops landed on the island of Gotland, and on land the Russian army reached Luleå. In August 1717, Russia transferred military operations to the territory of Sweden, whose human and financial resources were depleted.
In 1718, Peter I began negotiations with Charles XII (Aland Congress), which, however, were interrupted after the death of the king during the siege of the Norwegian fortress Fredriksgald in December 1718. Karl's sister Ulrika-Eleanor, who ascended the throne, and the party that supported her began to seek agreement with Russia's Western allies. In 1719, Sweden entered into an alliance with Hanover, ceding Bremen and Ferden to it, in 1720 - with Prussia, selling it Stettin and the mouth of the Oder, with Denmark, pledging to pay a duty for the passage of ships through the Sound Strait and not to provide support to the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, and also with England.
However, the Swedes failed to achieve a turning point in the war with Peter I. Russian troops periodically landed on the Swedish coast. In 1719, the Swedish fleet was defeated off the island of Ezel (Saaremaa), and on July 27 (August 7), 1720, off the island of Grengam; the English squadron's attempt to intervene in the course of hostilities ended in failure. In 1721, a Russian detachment landed in the Stockholm area, which forced the British to leave the Baltic.
After five months of negotiations in the city of Nystadt (Uusikaupunki) in Finland, on August 30 (September 10), 1721, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Sweden ceded the Baltic states and southwestern Karelia to Russia, retaining Finland. As a result, Sweden lost its possessions on the eastern shore of the Baltic and a significant part of its possessions in Germany, retaining only part of Pomerania and the island of Rügen.
As a result of the Northern War, Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, solving one of its main historical problems, while Sweden
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Causes and consequences of Russia's victory in the Northern War
Historians call the Northern War the military conflict between the so-called Northern Alliance and Sweden, which lasted from 1700 to 1721 and ended in the defeat of the Swedish army. The twenty-one-year Northern War is rightfully considered one of the largest military conflicts of the eighteenth century. Let's look at the main reasons for its occurrence and the course of action.
Background and main causes of the Northern War
To begin with, it is worth noting that by the beginning of the eighteenth century Sweden had one of the most powerful armies in Europe, representing the leading state in its western part. As soon as Charles, inexperienced due to his young age, ascended the throne of Sweden, neighboring countries (Russia, Denmark and Saxony) decide to take advantage of the moment to reduce the influence of this state. Thus, the Northern Alliance was formed, the main goal of which was to control the powerful Sweden. At the same time, each country had its own reasons for its weakening.
Saxony wanted to regain Livonia, Denmark wanted to gain dominance in the Baltic Sea, and Russia wanted to finally access ice-free seas to develop trade routes with developed and rich Europe. In addition, Peter the Great sought to obtain the territories of Ingria and Karelia.
At that time, Russia had only one port that could ensure trade with European countries - Arkhangelsk, located on the shores of the White Sea. At the same time, this trade route was extremely inconvenient, long and dangerous. Russia's access to the ice-free Baltic Sea could significantly boost the country's economy. To fully conduct the Northern War, Peter the Great even signed a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700.
Table: main causes of the Northern War
The reason for the outbreak of the Northern War
The reason for the conflict, according to the research of modern historians, was the “cold” reception of the Russian monarch in Riga during his trip to European countries. Peter took this fact as a personal insult, after which a period of hostility began between the countries.
Sweden's allies during the Northern War
During the Northern War, the Kingdom of Sweden was represented by:
- Zaporozhian Army;
- Crimean Khanate;
- Ottoman Empire;
- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth;
- Hanover;
- United Republics;
- as well as powerful Great Britain.
Today it is known for sure that the number of Swedish troops was about one hundred and thirty thousand people. At the same time, its ally the Ottoman Empire had about two hundred thousand more people.
Allies of Russia during the Northern War
During the entire war, the Northern Alliance included:
- Moldova;
- Prussia;
- Danish-Norwegian Kingdom;
- Saxony;
- Russia, etc.
However, the number of troops of the anti-Swedish coalition prevailed over the number of enemy troops. Russia alone had one hundred and seventy thousand people in its army. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had about the same number. And Denmark had forty thousand soldiers.
Progress of hostilities
Although the final defeat of the Swedish troops was inflicted by Russia, the first move in this military conflict belonged to Saxony. The army of this country laid siege to the city of Riga, hoping to win the favor of the local aristocracy for a regime change. At the same time, Danish soldiers began their offensive in southern Sweden. Both military operations were extremely unsuccessful and as a result, Denmark was forced to sign a peace treaty with Sweden, which removed it from the Northern Alliance for nine years. Thus, the Swedish monarch managed to disable the two countries at the very beginning of the war, because as soon as Saxony learned of the defeat of the Danish troops, it lifted the siege of Riga.
In the autumn of 1700, Russian troops were involved in hostilities, advancing on Sweden and wanting to recapture Ingermanland from it. To accomplish this, it was necessary to capture the Narva fortress, but poor supplies and weather conditions led the Russian army to defeat. Having revised the strategy, Peter captured Narva four years later. For some time, Charles switched to Poland and Saxony, where he won many victories.
The next important historical course of the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava, which took place in 1709. Victory in it could have been a victory in the war, but for some reason Peter the Great gave the order to pursue the enemy only in the evening, although the battle was won in the afternoon. After this, a series of victories began for Russia (both on land and at sea). Sweden, unable to withstand the onslaught, was forced to enter into peace negotiations with the Northern Alliance and agree to its terms.
Table: main stages of the Northern War
The historical significance of Russia's victory in the Northern War
As a result of the Northern War, Russia still managed to obtain the coveted territories of Courland, Karelia and Ingria. However, the most important thing was the acquisition of a state with access to the Baltic Sea, which later became the reason for the development of the state and placed the Russian Empire on the European political arena. At the same time, long military operations ruined the country and it took a lot of effort and time to restore it to its former greatness.
Table: results of the Northern War
Video lecture: Russian victory in the Northern War.
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Task 1 of 4 1 .In what year did the Northern War begin? Right Wrong |
At the end of the 17th century, Russian Tsar Peter the Great set three main foreign policy goals for himself and the country: to continue the reunification of ancient Russian lands and to open the way to the Black and Baltic seas. The Great Northern War, which is studied in history in the 8th grade, opened the way to the Baltic and contributed to the “transformation” of Russia into an empire.
Causes and main participants of the war
At the end of the 17th century, Russia faced three main foreign policy goals: the reunification of ancient Russian lands and the expansion of trade routes through the Black Sea and the Baltic. Only a war with Sweden, the most powerful power in the Baltic region, could help the Russian Tsar Peter the Great resolve the last issue - access to the Baltic Sea. Not only Russia, but also other countries - Saxony and Denmark - had territorial claims against the Swedish king. In 1699, on the initiative of the Elector of Saxony and King Augustus II of Poland, the Northern League or Northern League was formed, which united three countries - Denmark, Saxony and Russia - in the fight against the Swedish ruler Charles XII.
Rice. 1. Clash of Russian and Swedish troops in battle
The reason for the outbreak of war against Sweden was the cold reception given to Peter the Great by the Swedes during the visit of the Grand Embassy in Riga. But, as they say, if there is a reason, there will be a reason.
Start of hostilities
The outbreak of hostilities promised many hopes that were not destined to come true. In 1697, the Swedish throne passed to fifteen-year-old Charles XII. Sweden's longtime enemies perked up and decided to take advantage of the Swedish monarch's young age and inexperience. But their hopes were not justified.
Denmark was the first to be defeated, as a result of which it was forced to sign a peace treaty with Sweden on August 8, 1700. Soon, the Elector of Saxony Augustus II, having learned about the approach of the main forces of the Swedish king Charles XII, decided to retreat. And on November 19, 1700, in the battle of Narva, the army of Peter the Great was defeated. Thus, the Northern Union collapsed in the first year of its existence, and was revived only in 1709, when a turning point occurred during the Northern War, and the main failures and failures of Russia were far behind.
Rice. 2. Northern War map
Strategic mistake of the Swedish king
Despite his young age, Charles XII showed himself to be a talented commander: he valued the military experience passed on to him by inheritance, and chose the tactics of his ancestors - a surprise attack. Thus, he attacked the Russian troops at Narva and was right - victory was his. But here, according to historians, he made a strategic mistake: he allowed the demoralized Russian army to retreat, deciding not to finish off the “wounded beast,” and switched to a more powerful rival - the Polish-Saxon army of Augustus II.
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Peter the Great used this chance to his advantage: while the Swedes were “chasing” the Polish-Saxon army throughout Europe, he was implementing military reforms. The first fruits made themselves felt already in 1701, when the Russian fleet won a victory in the battle near Arkhangelsk. And in 1703, the city of St. Petersburg was founded on the reclaimed territory at the mouth of the Neva, and in 1704 the port city of Kronstadt was founded on the island of Kotlin and the adjacent small islands of the Gulf of Finland.
Chronological framework
The Great Northern War began in August 1700, and contrary to the allies' expectations of a quick outcome in their favor, it lasted for many years - 21 years (1700 -1721). Military operations covered vast territories. Based on where and when the major battles of the Northern War took place, the following stages are distinguished:
1. Northwestern theater of operations (1700-1708)
2. Western Theater of Operations (1701-1707)
3. Charles XII's campaign against Russia (1708-1709)
4. Northwestern and Western theaters of military operations (1710-1713)
5. Military actions in Finland (1713-1714)
6. The final period of the war (1715-1721)
Rice. 3. Russian Tsar Peter the Great
Progress of the war
The following table briefly lists the main battles of each period of the Northern War: the name of the battle, where the battle took place, the date, and its consequences.
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Main fights |
date |
Result of the battle |
|
|
Northwestern theater of operations (1700-1708) |
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Battle of Narva |
Defeat of the Russian army |
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|
Battle near Arkhangelsk |
Victory of the Russian fleet |
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|
Battle of Erestfer |
Victory of the Russian army |
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|
Battle of Hummelshof |
Victory of the Russian army |
||
|
Capture of Noteburg |
Victory of the Russian army |
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|
Capture of Nyenschantz |
Victory of the Russian army |
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|
Battle at the mouth of the Neva |
Victory of the Russian fleet |
||
|
Battle on the Sestra River |
Retreat of the Swedish army |
||
|
Capture of Dorpat |
Return of the “ancestral city” |
||
|
Capture of Narva |
Victory of the Russian army |
||
|
Battle of Gemauerthof |
Retreat of the Swedish army to Riga |
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|
Battle for Kotlin Island |
The defeat of the Swedish fleet and landing force |
||
|
Swedes' march on St. Petersburg |
Autumn 1708 |
The Swedish army was forced to flee by sea |
|
|
Western Theater of Operations (1701-1707) |
||
|
Battle of Fraunstadt |
Defeat of the allied army (Russian-Saxon army) |
|
|
Battle of Kalisz |
Victory of the Russian army led by Menshikov |
|
|
Charles XII's campaign against Russia (1708-1709) |
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|
Battle of Golovchin |
June 1708 |
Defeat of the Russian army and retreat |
|
Battle of Dobroye |
Victory of the Russian army |
|
|
Battle at Raevka |
Victory of the Russian army and the end of the Swedish offensive on Smolensk |
|
|
Battle of Lesnaya |
Victory of the Russian army (Charles XII is cut off from his bases in the Baltic states) |
|
|
Destruction of Baturin |
Capture of Mazepa's estate - another material and food base was lost) |
|
|
Defense of Veprik |
December 1708 - January 1709 |
Defeat of the fortress defenders |
|
Battle of Krasny Kut |
Defeat of the Swedish army (it retreated across the Vorskla River) |
|
|
Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich |
In April - May 1709 |
Zaporozhye Sich was burned and destroyed |
|
Battle of Poltava |
Complete defeat of the Swedish army (Charles XII fled to the Ottoman Empire) |
|
|
Northwestern and Western theater of military operations (1710-1713) |
||
|
Capture of Riga |
Victory of Russian soldiers (The Baltic states completely came under Russian control) |
|
|
Capture of Vyborg |
Victory of the Russian army |
|
|
Capture of Stettin |
June - September 1713 |
Victory of the Russian army |
|
Military actions in Finland (1713-1714) |
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|
Battle on the Pyalkan River |
Retreat of the Swedish army |
|
|
Battle of Lappola |
Russian troops achieved control over the main part of Finland |
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Battle of Gangut |
The first major victory of the Russian fleet (the Swedish fleet retreated, and the Russians occupied the island of Åland) |
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|
Final period of the war (1715-1721) |
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|
Ezel fight |
The first victory of the Russian fleet on the high seas without the use of boarding. |
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Grenham fight |
Victory in the naval battle of the Russian fleet (the last battle of the Northern War took place at sea) |
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Nystad Peace
In 1718, the Swedish king Charles XII died without waiting for the end of the war. His successors, after unsuccessful attempts to restore the former greatness of Sweden, were forced to sign the Peace of Nystad in 1721. According to this document, the following territories were forever placed at the disposal of Russia: Livonia, Estland, Ingria, part of Karelia, Vyborg. However, Peter the Great undertook to return Finland to the Swedes and pay 2 million rubles for the lands received. Thus, the main objectives of Peter the Great’s foreign policy and Russia’s goals to gain access to the Baltic Sea and return lost lands were achieved.
Important achievements of the Northern War include the emergence of a new type of armed forces for Russia - the Baltic Navy, reform of the army, and the establishment of its own metallurgical production.
What have we learned?
Today the focus is on the famous Northern War, which lasted 21 years - 1700-1721. We learned what events took place during this period: the names of the main participants - Peter the Great and Charles XII - were named, the places where the main events took place were indicated, and a map of the battles was described.
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