Don't lose it. Subscribe and receive a link to the article in your mail.

Since its appearance in Greco-Roman antiquity, it has undergone many metamorphoses and changes. Each era, each new century, each decade brought something of its own into psychology, thanks to which today there is not just psychology as an independent and self-sufficient discipline, but psychology, which has all sorts of branches and directions. In this article we will talk about the ten most popular psychological trends in our modern times. These include:

Below is a brief description of each of these areas.

NLP

It is one of the directions in practical psychology and psychotherapy, based on special techniques for modeling verbal and non-verbal human behavior, successful in any field, as well as a set of special connections between memory, eye movement and forms of speech.

NLP appeared in the 60s and 70s of the last century thanks to the activities of a group of scientists: Richard Bandler, John Grinder and Frank Pucelik, who worked under the patronage of the famous anthropologist Gregory Bateson. NLP is not recognized by the academic scientific community, and many methods, according to the conclusions of opponents of this method, cannot be scientifically substantiated. However, in our time, NLP is very popular, has great amount supporters and is practiced by many organizations during psychological training, as well as various training and consulting companies.

Psychoanalysis

It is a psychological theory that was developed by the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Psychoanalysis is also considered to be the most effective method of treating mental disorders based on this theory. Thanks to the activities of such scientists as K.G. Jung, A. Adler, G.S. Sullivan, K. Horney, J. Lacan, and E. Fromm, this trend has received the strongest development. Among the main provisions of psychoanalysis, one can single out the fact that human behavior, experience and cognition are determined mainly by internal irrational unconscious drives; personality structure and its development are determined by events that occurred in early childhood; the opposition between the conscious and the unconscious can lead to mental disorders, etc.

In the modern interpretation, psychoanalysis consists of more than twenty different concepts of human development, and the approaches to the treatment of mental illness through psychoanalysis are as different as the theories themselves.

Gestalt psychology

The school was founded at the beginning of the 20th century by the Czech psychologist and philosopher Max Wertheimer. The forerunners of its appearance were studies of perception, and the focus is on the desire of the psyche to organize the experience a person receives into an understandable unit. According to the ideas of Gestalt psychology, the basic psychological data are gestalts - integral structures that do not stand out from the total number of components that form them. They have their own laws and characteristics.

Recently, Gestalt psychology has changed its position in relation to human consciousness and asserts that the analysis of this consciousness should primarily be directed not at individual elements, but at integral mental images. Together with psychoanalysis and phenomenology, Gestalt psychology became the basis of Gestalt therapy, where the main ideas were transferred from the processes of perception to the general understanding of the world.

Hellinger constellations

Systemic family constellations are a phenomenological method of systemic family therapy, the main important discoveries in which were made by the German philosopher, psychotherapist and theologian Bert Hellinger. The method itself is designed to correct systemic family injuries, called system dynamics, and eliminate their consequences.

Therapists using this technique have determined that many of people's problems are associated with past family trauma, such as homicide, suicide, early deaths, rape, moving, family breaks, etc. Hellinger's constellations differ from other similar methods in that they are short-lived and are used only once. In his books, Hellinger refers this technique not so much to psychotherapeutic directions as to spiritual practices.

Hypnosis

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, which is characterized by both signs of wakefulness and sleep, during which dreams can occur. Thanks to hypnosis, at the same time, two states of consciousness can coexist in parallel, which in ordinary life are mutually exclusive. The first information about hypnosis dates back to the third millennium BC - hypnosis was practiced in Ancient India, Egypt, Tibet, Rome, Greece and other countries.

The idea of ​​hypnosis is based on the duality of the nature of the psyche, in which there are conscious and unconscious. And it so happens that the unconscious has more influence on the psyche than the mind. Therefore, at present, with the help of hypnosis, experienced specialists solve all kinds of problems of people that cannot be eliminated by more traditional methods.

Positive psychotherapy

The method of positive psychotherapy is one of the main in its field. It was founded by the German neurologist and psychiatrist Nossrat Pezeschkian in 1968, but was recognized by the European Association for Psychotherapy in 1996, and by the World Council for Psychotherapy only in 2008.

This psychotherapeutic technique belongs to the category of transcultural, psychodynamic psychotherapeutic techniques with a humanistic position. According to her, the most important given of human nature is abilities (both innate and acquired). And the methodology itself is structured in such a way that it includes a rational and purely scientific Western approach, as well as Eastern wisdom and philosophy. In 2009, the founder of positive psychotherapy was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Client-centered therapy

Client-centered therapy as a psychotherapeutic method was proposed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Initially, the author presented a hypothesis according to which a person is able to independently change himself, and the psychotherapist performs only the role of an observer who controls the process. Later, however, a bias was made to improve methods that would help the specialist better understand the client's condition and changes in him during the course of therapy. It is thanks to the main idea of ​​the method (to come to an understanding of human self-perception) that the method got its name. There is another important point: in client-centered therapy, the main role is assigned to building the relationship between the patient and the therapist as the key to achieving success in treatment.

Art therapy

Art therapy is a special type of psychological correction and psychotherapy, which is based on creativity and art. In a narrower sense, art therapy can be called a treatment through visual creativity, the purpose of which is to influence the psycho-emotional state of a person.

The term itself, meaning "art treatment", was coined in 1938 by the British artist and therapist Adrian Hill while he was describing his work in medical institutions with tuberculosis patients. Then the method was applied in the United States in working with children who were taken out of Nazi concentration camps during World War II. Over time, art therapy gained more and more adherents, and in 1960, the American Art Therapy Association was founded in the United States.

Body-oriented therapy

Body-oriented psychotherapy is a therapeutic practice that allows you to work with people's neuroses and problems through body contact. The founder of this trend is considered a student of Sigmund Freud, the American and Austrian psychologist Wilhelm Reich, who at one time retired from psychoanalysis and focused on the body.

This therapy is based on the concept of "muscular (characterological) armor", according to which muscle clamps are formed as a defense against anxiety arising in children on the basis of sexual desires and accompanied by the fear of punishment. Over time, the suppression of this fear becomes chronic, resulting in the formation of specific character traits that form this shell.

Later, Reich's ideas were continued by Ida Rolf, Gerda Boyesen, Marion Rosen, and Alexander Lowen. In Russia, this area of ​​psychotherapy is often referred to as the Feldenkrais method.

Coaching

Coaching is a relatively recent method of training and consulting, which differs from traditional ones in that it does not have strict recommendations and advice, but there is a joint search for solutions to problems with the client. Also, coaching is distinguished by a pronounced motivation to achieve certain goals and results in activities and everyday life.

The founders of coaching are considered the American coach and creator of the concept of the inner game Timothy Golvey, the British race car driver and business coach John Whitmore, and the founder of the University of Coaches and other coaching organizations, Thomas J. Leonard.

The main idea of ​​coaching is to move a person from the area of ​​the problem to the area of ​​its effective solution, to allow him to see new ways and ways to maximize his potential, as well as help to establish things in various areas of his life.

Of course, the descriptions presented cannot contain the entire completeness of these psychological directions, just as they cannot reveal all their features. But our task was only to introduce you to them, presenting a very brief description... And in which direction to develop for you is already a matter of your personal choice.

We will be glad if you take part in our small vote. Please answer the question: which of the described directions seemed the most interesting to you?

The history of role-playing games is associated with the development of the theory of roles, as well as with the emergence of the concept of role-playing games in modern behaviorism and sociology. In 1966 Biddle and Thomas wrote the book "The Origin and History of Role Theory", where J. Mead, J. Moreno and R. Linton are named as their predecessors. Moreno's contribution consists in describing two stages in the genesis of roles: the perception of the role and the embodiment, or enactment, of the role. Linton proposed to distinguish between the concepts of "status" (social position) and role, thereby recognizing that a) positions and corresponding roles are elements of the social order and that b) human behavior can be considered as playing a role, and the role itself as a connecting link between behavior human and social structure. Historically, however, the origin of the concept of role is not associated with either sociology or psychology. Moreno wrote that the word role (role) comes from the Latin rotula (small wheel or round log), which later came to mean a sheet of paper rolled into a tube on which the words of plays for actors were written. Only from the XVI-XVII centuries "role" means the play of actors. The concept of role play as part of psychotherapy was not developed until the 20th century. Silburg and Henry (1941) were among the first to use role-playing in psychotherapy. They themselves pointed out that as early as the beginning of the 19th century, Reil noted the therapeutic effect of "acting out scenes" by patients in psychiatric hospitals. Moreno at the beginning of the 20th century described role-playing with children in the city gardens of Vienna. However, only in the 30s. experimenting with stage acting has been recognized as an effective psychotherapeutic procedure. Since the mid-50s. The use of role-playing games in the United States has gone in two ways. They began to be widely used in psychotherapy, including personal growth groups. This also includes all the therapeutic applications that Nicole and Efran (1985) called "modern catharsis therapy", including the classical method of sociometry and psychodrama Moreno, gestalt therapy, as well as meeting groups (Gol'dberg, 1970), primary therapy (Yanov, 1970 ), reality therapy (Glasser, 1965), and partial transactional analysis (Bern, 1961). Role-playing in psychotherapy also began to be used by advocates of behaviorist therapies that did not recognize the role of catharsis in therapy, fixed-role therapy (Kelly, 1955), and behavior rehearsal (Wolp, 1958). In essence, psychodrama sits somewhere between modern catharsis therapy and behavioral therapy, as it recognizes the importance of both catharsis and retraining. The second area of ​​application of role-playing games has become training groups, which set the task of self-development and self-improvement, rather than psychotherapy. This direction was created mainly with the aim of developing in people the skills of leaders, behavior in large and small groups, interaction, resolving conflicts in groups, forming an adequate self-perception and perception of others. T-groups (training groups) and psychological testing centers for professional qualities and leadership ability are classic examples. Role-playing games are ubiquitous today and are indispensable in a wide variety of uses in psychology. However, there is no doubt that they are most effectively used in psychotherapy.

The term "psychodrama" is complex and multifaceted, and there is no consensus in the literature on the definition of psychodrama. The term is loosely used to refer to, inter alia, clinical role-playing, behavioral simulation through rehearsals, action analysis, creative drama, drama therapy, improvisation theater, and even spontaneous happening.

Psychodrama is a method of psychotherapy in which clients continue and complete their actions through theatricalization, role play, dramatic self-expression. Both verbal and non-verbal communication are used. Several scenes are played out, depicting, for example, memories of specific past events, unfinished situations, internal dramas, fantasies, dreams, preparation for upcoming situations with possible risk, or involuntary manifestations of mental states “here and now”. These scenes are either close to a real life situation, or bring out internal mental processes. If required, group members or inanimate objects can take on other roles. Many techniques are used - role exchange, duplication, mirror technique, concretization, maximization and monologue. Typically, the following phases of psychodrama can be distinguished: warm-up, action, study, completion and sharing.

The main advantage of this definition is that it leaves open the possibility of a clear separation. various applications and styles of therapeutic practice according to the following factors:

1. Context - person, group, family, environment.

2. Focus is a person, group, or topic.

3. Localization -in situ, stage, school, hospital, clinic.

4. School (approach) - Freudianism, Morenianism, Adlerianism, Rogerianism, etc.

5. Theoretical orientation - psychodramatic, psychoanalytic, behavioristic, existential, humanistic.

6. Therapeutic goal is symptom reduction, crisis intervention, conflict resolution, personality changes.

7. Therapeutic intervention - directive, supportive, confrontational, reconstructive, manifesting, explaining.

8. The main therapeutic factors are the release of emotions, cognitive insight, interpersonal feedback, behavioral learning.

9. Time and frequency of sessions - periodic, ongoing, single sessions, marathon, time-limited sessions.

10. Participants of psychodrama - age, gender, diagnosis.

These factors, each individually and collectively, can be considered as variables that have a great influence on the process and result of psychodrama, they parallel six widely accepted requirements for the construction of psychotherapeutic research.

Psychodrama originated about 80 years ago as a psychotherapeutic technique in group and family therapy and is one of the classic forms of psychotherapy of the 20th century.

The creation and subsequent development of psychodrama is inextricably linked with the name of Jacob Levi Moreno by an Austrian psychiatrist who emigrated to the United States in 1925. Moreno is considered the founder of not only psychodrama, but also sociometry, and, according to some researchers, of all group psychotherapy. Dr. Moreno conceived psychodrama as a system of actions depicting a person's inner world and social behavior through role-playing games.

In the games of his own childhood, Moreno subsequently saw the source of the future psychodrama. The famous episode of these games can be considered symbolic for the subsequent creation of the method. Once Moreno played "God" with his children. Moreno himself played the role of God and, sitting on a mountain of chairs, watched the “angels” “flying and singing” around him, running near the “paradise” folded out of chairs. "God" tried to take off with the "angels" and, falling, broke his arm. However, the faith in the possibility of becoming God did not leave Moreno.

Starting from the first half of the last century, Moreno became interested in children's games in a different way. Watching the games in the gardens and parks of Vienna, Moreno drew attention to how fully the children are devoted to the process of making their fantasies come true. On the other hand, he was attracted by the fact that in the course of the development of games, plots and roles begin to be repeated, as if "preserved". The idea of ​​"cultural canned food", which, being the result of creativity, gains stability, stability and, paradoxically, may turn out to be an obstacle to creativity due to its rigidity. Moreno, in the genre of spontaneous drama, began to compose and act out fairy tales with children on the themes of their lives, seeing in this the origins of role-playing, the prototype of theater based on improvisation.

In 1922 Moreno organized a "theater of improvisation", the functions of which gradually became psychotherapeutic. This theater was the prototype of psychodrama. Then he opened a health center in Beacon, building a theater for psychodrama. The concept of drama as a remedial method arose as a result of an experiment that was staged by Moreno at the end of the First World War. This experiment was named "Spontaneous Theater". Its creation was conceived as a new entertainment and was not initially focused on the practice of personal change. The positive consequences of such an impact were noted by him only as side effects of theatrical performances. According to Moreno himself, the idea of ​​psychodrama as a healing method came to him after one of the actors in his theater told him about his problems in his relationship with the bride. With the assistance of the troupe, Moreno brought the actor along with his personal problems onto the stage. The experiment turned out to be very useful both for the bride and groom and for the whole troupe. We must pay tribute to the creative thinking and professionalism of Moreno, because inspired by the success, he began to experiment with similar group performances further, which later became an integral part of psychodrama.

Introduction

Psychodrama is a method of psychotherapy and psychological counseling created by Jacob Moreno. Classical psychodrama is a therapeutic group process that uses the instrument of dramatic improvisation to explore a person's inner world. This is done to develop a person's creative potential and expand opportunities for adequate behavior and interaction with people. Modern psychodrama is not only a method of group psychotherapy. Psychodrama is used in individual work with clients (monodrama), and elements of psychodrama are widespread in many areas of individual and group work with people.

History of origin

Psychodrama traces its history back to the early 1920s. On April 1, 1921, physician Jacob Levi Moreno presented to the public an experimental production "on the head of the day" at the Vienna theater. During the game, the actors improvised and involved the audience in the action. The production failed miserably, nevertheless this day, April Fool's Day, is considered the birthday of psychodrama.

After moving to the United States, Moreno founded the Moreno Institute in Beacone, which became the center for the development of psychodrama. The opening of the center in Beacon is associated with a history that characterizes Moreno not only as a philosopher, doctor, psychologist and sociologist, but also as an engineer. Moreno, together with his friend, developed an apparatus, which is the prototype of a tape recorder, and recorded his groups on it. After moving to the United States, Moreno received a patent for his invention, and with this money he opened a center in Beacon.

In the magazine "Imago" published by Moreno, devoted to psychodrama, sociometry and group psychotherapy, such well-known psychotherapists as F. Perls, E. Bern, and others were published.

Psychodrama is the world's first method of group psychotherapy (in fact, the very term "group psychotherapy" was introduced into Moreno's psychology). Moreno proceeded from the fact that since any person is a social being, a group can more effectively solve his problems than one person. In the 20s of the last century, the most popular method of psychotherapy was psychoanalysis, where the patient, lying on the couch and not seeing the psychotherapist, told him about his dreams and the associations they caused in their lives. Moreno developed his ideas in polemics with Freud, he did not like the passive role of the patient and the fact that the psychotherapeutic process took place "one-on-one." Young Moreno told Freud: "I will go beyond where you left off. You have allowed the patient to speak, I will allow him to act. You conduct your sessions in your office, I will bring him where he lives - to his family and team." ...

I.B. Grinshpun, Associate Professor, Department of Developmental Psychology, Moscow State University, certified specialist in psychodrama.

E. A. Morozova, a doctoral student at the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, a certified specialist in psychodrama.

Preliminary definition

There is no single definition of psychodrama. As a preliminary definition, we propose to use the one that is given in most cases (with some differences in wording): the method of group psychotherapy, which involves the use of theatrical (dramatic) improvisation for the client's exploration of his inner world, the development of creative potential and, on this basis, a productive change in attitudes towards being in its various forms (including self-attitude) and expanding the possibilities of adequate behavior and interaction. At the same time, giving such definitions, many authors note their insufficiency and, accordingly, convention (for example, psychodrama can be group-oriented). The main reasons for the difficulties arising in this area can be seen in the following. First, the creator of psychodrama J.L. Moreno considered it not only as a psychotherapeutic method, but - at various stages of his work - as theology, an art form, science, philosophy of life. PFM Kellerman (Kellerman, 1998), who subjected the problem of the definition of psychodrama to a special analysis, sees this as Moreno's inconsistency; we believe that all these aspects, often overlooked when considering psychodrama, are extremely important for understanding its essence, and below we will try to show this. The second difficulty is related to the fact that there is no clearly formulated theory of psychodrama. Actually, Moreno, apparently, did not pose such a problem, at least if we bear in mind theories of the traditional type. Like many psychologists focused on existentialism, Moreno does not build a rigid system of postulates and rules for working with them, the terms he introduced are clearly metaphorical and, therefore, allow for multiple interpretations. (The foregoing does not mean the absence of theoretical concepts, we will consider them in the future; however, this means the possibility of their rather free interpretation and development, which is what happens.) Another difficulty is associated with the fact that the therapeutic system proposed by Moreno presupposes the trinity of sociometry, group psychotherapy and psychodrama (we will talk about this below), and a number of authors also call this trinity psychodrama or psychodramatic therapeutic system. The natural question of whether it is possible - and to what extent - to consider psychodrama separately from the first two components does not find a single answer. If so, then the psychodramatist may not include sociometry and group psychotherapy in his practice or include at his own discretion at the level of local techniques; if not, an orientation towards working with group structure and group dynamics is required. Accordingly, not only an individual (as in the above definition), but also a group can act as a subject of therapeutic changes. We will not discuss other difficulties in defining psychodrama - the reader can refer, in particular, to the aforementioned work of Kellerman. Outlining below the history of psychodrama, its theoretical and methodological aspects, we will try to clarify the current state of affairs. Note that ideas about what to call psychodrama vary from requirements of adherence to Moreno's philosophical, theological, psychological, and therapeutic ideas (the so-called classical psychodrama) to the opinion that any practice of role-playing can be called psychodrama (Rudestam, 1998). We will mainly talk about classical psychodrama.

History

The history of psychodrama is primarily associated with the life of its creator, and the originality of Moreno's personality and life path was directly reflected in the theory and practice of his psychotherapeutic system. The unusualness of his personality is largely due to the fact that, like Andersen, who spoke about the fairy tale of his life, Moreno could say: the game of my life (a game in the broadest sense of the word).

Jacob Moreno Levi (later Jacob Levi Moreno) was born on May 19, 1889, or 1890, or 1892, either in Bucharest or on a ship crossing the Mediterranean. Such an unusual beginning of the biography is explained by Moreno's addiction to practical jokes and hoaxes; in different sources, different dates appear, and the legend of the birth on the ship, which has not been documented in anything, also comes from him.

When Moreno was five years old, the family moved to Vienna. In the games of his own childhood, Moreno subsequently saw the source of the future psychodrama. The famous episode of these games can be considered symbolic. Once Moreno, together with the neighbour's children, played “God”. Moreno himself played the role of God and, sitting on a mountain of chairs, watched the “angels” “flying and singing” around him - friends who ran near the “paradise” folded out of chairs. “God” tried to take off with the “angels” and, falling, broke his arm. However, the belief in the possibility of becoming God later did not leave Moreno - the meaning of this statement will be clear in the future.

Beginning in 1909, Moreno (who was at that time engaged in philosophy) became interested in children's games in a different way. Watching children's games in the gardens and parks of Vienna, Moreno was amazed at how fully the children give themselves up to the process of making their fantasies come true; on the other hand, his attention was attracted by the fact that, in the course of the development of games, plots and roles begin to be repeated, “canned” (the future idea of ​​“cultural canned food” - cultural products that, being the result of creativity, gain stability and paradoxically may turn out to be an obstacle to creativity) ... Interest in children's games was not passive - Moreno began to compose and act with children in the genre of spontaneous drama fairy tales on the themes of their lives. Subsequently, in this work, Moreno saw the origins of the practice of role-playing, the prototype of the theater of improvisation.

In the 1910s Moreno completed higher education- first philosophical, then medical. As a physician, before World War I, he worked with young prostitutes, organizing self-help groups for them. This is the beginning of group psychotherapy (the term appeared in 1932, the priority in its creation is usually recognized for Moreno). In 1916 Moreno worked in a refugee camp in Mittendorf. There he drew attention to the fact that the physical health of the inhabitants of this or that barrack depends on the specifics of the interpersonal relations that have developed between them. Then sociometry was born (more on it below), later recognized as the theoretical and partly methodological basis of psychodrama. In connection with the creation of sociometry, Moreno was later recognized as one of the founders of microsociology, psychology of small groups, and social psychiatry. Since 1919, having received his doctorate, Moreno practiced in Bad Weslau.

An important role in Moreno's life was played by his passion for literature. At the age of about twenty-five years, he published two poetry collections - "Father's Testament" and "Invitation to a Meeting", and he published it anonymously, by analogy with the Bible, which does not have an author. At the same time, judging by the sketches of his autobiography, he felt a desire to embark on the path of religion, thinking to go to a monastery or organize a sect. He did not go to the monastery, since he saw in himself not a hermit, but a fighter. He organized the sect, but it did not last long. In the 1920s, Moreno was engaged in the literary and philosophical magazine "Daimon", where F. Kafka, M, Scheler, M. Buber collaborated. One can assume mutual influence - in any case, the parallels in the ideas of Moreno and Buber are sometimes quite obvious.

In 1922, Moreno organized a "theater of improvisation" (more about it below), the functions of which gradually became psychotherapeutic. This theater was the prototype of psychodrama.

In 1925 Moreno emigrated to the United States. In 1936, in Beacon, he opened a health center with a theater specially built for psychodrama. At the same time, the publication of magazines and seminars began, where not only psychodrama was discussed, but also other psychotherapeutic approaches. In the late 1940s, the American Association for Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama was formed. International congresses on psychodrama and sociodrama have been held since 1964.

At the same time, Moreno married Zerka Toymen (since then she is known as Zerka Moreno), who made a huge contribution to the development of psychodrama and continues to this day the work of her husband after his death in 1974.

The main non-psychological sources that influenced psychodrama

Psychodrama and religion

Initially, Moreno's psychodramatic ideas developed within the framework of his spiritual ideas associated with theology and cosmology. These ideas will subsequently be preserved (at least among Moreno and his apologists), although they will acquire a more psychologized form. Moreno criticized contemporary religion, or rather the religious practice, for being cut off from man. She, according to Moreno, turns a person to the result of divine creation, and not to its process. The main thing, according to Moreno, is the desire to “meet” with God when He is at the beginning of creation and creates. In this regard, the main concept for Moreno is “the spark of God,” the cosmic source of creativity. Spontaneity (we will discuss this concept in more detail later) in this aspect means active participation in divine creativity. The desire to be God lives in a person, to acquire the state called by the founder of psychodrama “I am God”. I am God - the third stage of the evolution of the spark of God; the first - He-God - is embodied in the Yahweh of the Old Testament, separated from people, the second - You-God - is embodied in Jesus, the God-man, to whom you can “turn personally”. The third stage — I am God — is yet to come; Moreno believed the possibility of its beginning with the awakening of creativity and spontaneity of a person, calling for "normal megalomania".