Crafts

Write a story on behalf of a resident of the ancient two-Rivers. Dzhurinsky A.N. History of pedagogy: Textbook. manual for stud. pedagogical universities. Myths and legends

The school and education of the Ancient East should be considered as something relatively integral and at the same time as the results of the specific development of each of the ancient Eastern civilizations that had stable features. The civilizations of the Ancient East gave humanity invaluable experience, without which it is impossible to imagine further rounds of development of the world school and pedagogy. During this period, the first educational institutions appeared, the first attempts were made to comprehend the essence of upbringing and education. The pedagogical traditions of the ancient states of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China influenced the genesis of education and training in later times.

"Plates houses"

Arising earlier than the 3rd millennium BC. e. and succeeding each other until 100 AD. e. states in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, etc.) had a fairly stable and viable culture. Astronomy, mathematics, agricultural technology developed here successfully: an original writing system, a system of musical recording were created, various arts flourished. In the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, they laid out parks, boulevards, laid canals, erected bridges, laid roads, and built luxurious houses for the nobility. In the center of the city there was a cult tower-building (ziggurat).

There were schools in almost every city. Educational institutions appeared here in the 3rd millennium BC. e. in connection with the need of the economy and culture in literate people - scribes. Representatives of this profession stood at a fairly high level of the social ladder. The first institutions where scribes were trained were called the houses of tablets (in Sumerian - edubba). It comes from the clay tablets on which the cuneiform was applied. The letters were carved with a wooden chisel on a damp tablet, which was then fired. The first school tablets date back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. From the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. scribes began to use wooden tablets: they were covered with a thin layer of wax, on which written signs were scratched.

The first centers of culture appeared on the shores of the Persian Gulf in Ancient Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia). It was here, in the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates, in the 4th millennium BC. the Sumerians lived (it is interesting that only in the 19th century it became clear that people lived in the lower reaches of these rivers long before the Assyrians and Babylonians); they built the cities of Ur, Uruk, Lagash and Larsa. To the north lived the Akkadian Semites, whose main city was Akkad.

Astronomy, mathematics, agricultural technology developed successfully in Mesopotamia, an original writing system, a system of musical notation were created, a wheel, coins were invented, and various arts flourished. In the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, they laid out parks, erected bridges, laid canals, paved roads, and built luxurious houses for the nobility. In the center of the city there was a cult tower-building (ziggurat). The art of ancient peoples may seem complex and mysterious: the plots of works of art, the methods of depicting a person or events of the idea of space and time were then completely different than they are now. Any image contained an additional meaning that went beyond the plot. Behind each character in a mural or sculpture was a system of abstract concepts - good and evil, life and death, etc. To express this, the masters resorted to the language of symbols. Not only scenes from the life of the gods are filled with symbolism, but also images of historical events: they were understood as a man's account to the gods.

In the initial period of the emergence of writing in Sumer, the goddess of the harvest and fertility Nisaba was considered the patroness of the scribes. Later, the Akkadians attributed the creation of the scribal art to the god Naboo.

The letter is believed to have originated in Egypt and Mesopotamia at about the same time. Usually the Sumerians are considered the inventors of cuneiform writing. But now a lot of evidence has accumulated that the Sumerians borrowed the letter from their predecessors in Mesopotamia. However, it was the Sumerians who developed this letter and put it on a large scale at the service of civilization. The first cuneiform texts date back to the beginning of the second quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. e., and after 250 years, an already developed writing system was created, and in the XXIV century. BC. documents appear in the Sumerian language.

The main material for writing since the inception of writing and at least until the middle of the 1st millennium was clay. The writing tool was a reed stick (style), the cut angle of which was used to press the marks onto wet clay. In the 1st millennium BC. e. In Mesopotamia, leather, imported papyrus and long, narrow (3-4 cm wide) tablets with a thin layer of wax, on which they wrote (probably with a reed stick) in cuneiform, began to be used as writing materials.

Temples were the centers of scribing. Apparently, the Sumerian school arose as an appendage of the temple, but eventually separated from it, temple schools appeared.

By the middle of the 3rd millennium, there were many schools throughout Sumer. During the second half of the 3rd millennium, the Sumerian school system flourished, and from this period tens of thousands of clay tablets, texts of student exercises performed in the process of passing school curriculum, lists of words and miscellaneous items.

The school premises found during the excavations were designed for a small number of children. Judging by the size of the courtyard, where classes were supposedly conducted in one Ur school, there could fit 20-30 students. It should be noted that there were no classes, the older and younger studied together.

The school was called e dubba (in Sumerian "house of the tablet") or bit tuppim (in Akkadian with the same meaning). The teacher in Sumerian was called ummea, the pupil in Akkadian talmidu (from tamadu - "to learn").

The Sumerian school, as in later times, trained scribes for economic and administrative needs, primarily the state and temple apparatus.

During the heyday of the ancient Babylonian kingdom (1st half of the 2nd millennium BC), the palace and temple Edubbes played a leading role in education. They were often located in religious buildings - ziggurats - had many rooms for storing tablets, scientific and educational studies. Such complexes were called houses of knowledge.

The main method of upbringing in school, as well as in a family, was the example of elders. The training was based on endless repetition. The teacher explained to the students the texts and individual formulas, orally commenting on them. The written tablet was repeated many times until the student memorized it.

Other teaching methods arose as well: conversations between a teacher and a student, the teacher's explanation of difficult words and texts. The method of dialogue-dispute was used, and not only with a teacher or classmate, but also with an imaginary subject. At the same time, the students were divided into pairs and, under the guidance of the teacher, they proved, affirmed, denied and refuted certain judgments.

The school was subject to severe stick discipline. According to the texts, the students were beaten at every step: for being late for class, for talking during classes, for getting up without permission, for poor handwriting, etc.

In the centers ancient culture- Ur, Nippur, Babylon and other cities of Mesopotamia, - starting from the II millennium BC, for many centuries collections of literary and scientific texts were created in schools. The numerous scribes of the city of Nippur had rich private libraries. The most significant library in ancient Mesopotamia was the library of King Ashurbanapal (668 - 627 BC) at his palace in Nineveh.

Of course, in Mesopotamia in all periods, only boys studied in schools. The isolated cases when women received education can be explained by the fact that they studied at home with their scribe fathers.

Only a small proportion of the scribes who graduated from the school could or preferred to engage in teaching and research work. Most, after completing their studies, became scribes at the court of kings, in temples, and much less often on the farms of rich people.

We have considered the most important issues related to the emergence and development of the school. The importance of the oldest schools on Earth was great. Despite the difficult part of the student that fell to him during his studies (as follows from the texts cited earlier), clerical education was necessary for subsequent promotion. Those who finished the tablets at home could be called happy. Without these houses, these ancient people would certainly not have had such a high culture - they could not only read, multiply and divide, but also write poetry, compose music, they knew astronomy and mineralogy, created the first libraries and much more. The study of history is always very exciting and, moreover, contributes to the comprehension of the experience accumulated by mankind, comparing it with the present day, i.e. gives more and more food for thought.

School and education in Mesopotamia

The main centers of education and upbringing in ancient times ?! states of the East were families, temples and states? Mya, however, is not 6fipia able to give children even minim! new educational training - to teach writing, reading and counting. This has become the main task of the schools.

The content of education in these schools was extremely scarce due to the fact that children were trained to perform well-defined functions. By the 1st millennium BC. the development of crafts, trade, the gradual complication of the nature of labor, the growth of the urban population contributed to the expansion of the circle of people who needed schooling. In addition to the children of the clan nobility and clergymen, children of wealthy artisans and merchants were already becoming schoolchildren, but the absolute majority of the population still managed only by raising their children in the family, without elements of proper education.

The emergence of the school was a consequence of the development of society. The school had relative independence and, for its part, influenced the evolution of society. Thus, the school of writing, having arisen as a response to the need to ensure the transfer of experience from generation to generation, allowed, in turn, society to move forward.

Approximately 4 thousand years BC. in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, cities arose - the states of Sumer and Akkad, which existed here almost before the beginning of our era, and other ancient states, such as Babylon and Assyria. All of them had a fairly viable culture. Astronomy, mathematics, agriculture developed here, an original writing system was created, and various arts arose.

School and education in Mesopotamia

In the cities of Mesopotamia, there was a practice of tree planting, canals were laid with bridges across them, palaces were erected for the nobility. There were schools in almost every city, the history of which dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. and reflected the needs of the development of the economy, culture, in need of literate people - scribes. The scribes on the social ladder were high enough. The first schools for their preparation in Mesopotamia were called "houses of tablets" (. in Sumerian - edubba), from the name of the clay tablets on which the cuneiform was applied. The letters were carved with a wooden chisel on raw clay tiles, which were then fired. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. scribes began to use wooden tablets covered with a thin layer of wax, on which cuneiform signs were scratched.

The first schools of this type arose, apparently, under the families of scribes. Then there were palace and temple "houses of tablets". Clay tablets with cuneiform writing, which are material evidence of the development of civilization, including schools, in Mesopotamia, allow you to get an idea of these schools. Tens of thousands of such tablets have been found in the ruins of palaces, temples and dwellings. These are, for example, tablets from the library and archives of the city of Nippur, among which should be mentioned, first of all, the chronicles of Ashurbanipal (668-626 BC), the laws of the king of Babylon Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), the laws of Assyria second half of the 2nd millennium BC and etc.

Gradually, the Edubbes acquired autonomy. Basically, these schools were small, with one teacher who was responsible for both running the school and making new sample tablets that the students memorized by rewriting them into exercise tablets. In large "houses of tablets", apparently, there were special teachers of writing, counting, drawing, as well as a special steward who monitored the order and course of classes. Education in schools was paid. To gain additional attention from the teacher, the parents made offerings to him.

At first, the goals of school education were narrowly utilitarian: the preparation of scribes necessary for economic life. Later, the Edubbes began to gradually turn into centers of culture and education. Large book depositories arose under them, for example, the Nippur Library in the 2nd millennium BC. and the Nineveh Library in the 1st millennium BC.

The emerging school as educational institution nourished the traditions of patriarchal family education and at the same time craft apprenticeship. The influence of the family and communal way of life on the school remained throughout the history of the most ancient states of Mesopotamia. The family continued to play the main role in the upbringing of children. As follows from the "Code of Hammurabi", the father was responsible for preparing his son for life and was obliged to teach him his craft. The main method of upbringing in the family and school was the example of elders. In one of the clay tablets, which contains the address of the father to the son, the father encourages him to follow the positive examples of relatives, friends and wise rulers.

Edubba was headed by "father", teachers were called "father's brothers". The pupils were divided into older and younger "children of the edubba". Education at Edubba was seen primarily as preparation for the craft of a scribe. The students had to learn the technique of making clay tablets, master the system of cuneiform writing. During the years of study, the student had to make a complete set of tablets with the prescribed texts. Throughout the history of "sign houses", memorization and rewriting were the universal methods of teaching in them. The lesson consisted in memorizing the "model plates" and copying them in the "exercise plates". The raw exercise tablets were corrected by the teacher. Later, exercises such as "dictations" were sometimes used. Thus, the teaching methodology was based on repeated repetition, memorization of columns of words, texts, tasks and their solutions. However, the teacher used the method of explaining difficult words and texts. It can be assumed that the teaching also used the method of dialogue-argument, and not only with a teacher or student, but also with an imaginary object. Pupils were divided into pairs and, under the guidance of the teacher, they proved or refuted certain provisions.

The tablets "Praising the art of scribes" found in the ruins of the capital of Assyria, Nineveh, tell us about the way the school was and what they wanted to see in Mesopotamia. They said: "A true scribe is not the one who thinks about their daily bread, but who is focused on their work." Diligence, according to the author of "Praise ...", helps the student "get on the road to wealth and prosperity."

One of the cuneiform documents of the 2nd millennium BC. allows you to get an idea of the schoolchild's school day. Here is what it says: "Schoolboy, where do you go from the first days?" the teacher asks. “I go to school,” the student replies. "What are you doing at school?" - “I'm making my sign. I eat breakfast. I am given an oral lesson. I'm being asked a written lesson. When class is over, I go home, walk in and see my father. I tell my father about my lessons, and my father rejoices. When I wake up in the morning, I see my mother and tell her: hurry up, give me my breakfast, I go to school: at school, the warden asks: "Why are you late?" Frightened and with a beating heart, I go to the teacher and bow to him respectfully. "

Education in the "sign houses" was difficult and time consuming. At the first stage, they taught to read, write, and count. When mastering the letter, it was necessary to memorize a lot of cuneiform signs. Then the student moved on to memorizing instructive stories, fairy tales, legends, acquired a well-known stock of practical knowledge and skills necessary for construction, drawing up business documents. Trained in the "house of tablets" became the owner of a kind of integrated profession, acquiring various knowledge and skills.

Two languages were studied in schools: Akkadian and Sumerian. Sumerian language in the first third of the 2nd millennium BC already

ceased to be a means of communication and remained only as the language of science and religion. In modern times, a similar role in Europe was played by Latin language... Depending on the further specialization, future scribes were given knowledge in the field of language proper, mathematics and astronomy. As can be understood from the tablets of that time, a graduate of edubbu had to master writing, four arithmetic operations, the art of a singer and a musician, navigate the laws, and know the ritual of performing cult acts. He had to be able to measure fields, divide property, understand fabrics, metals, plants, understand the professional language of priests, artisans, and shepherds.

The schools that emerged in Sumer and Akkad in the form of "houses of tablets" then underwent a significant evolution. Gradually they became, as it were, centers of enlightenment. At the same time, a special literature began to take shape, serving the school. The first, relatively speaking, teaching aids - dictionaries and anthologies - appeared in Sumer for 3 thousand years BC. They included teachings, edifications, instructions, issued in the form of cuneiform tablets.

During the heyday of the Babylonian kingdom (1st half of the 2nd millennium BC), palace and temple schools began to play an important role in education and upbringing, which were usually located in religious buildings - ziggurats, where there were libraries and premises for occupation of scribes. Such, in modern terms, the complexes were called "houses of knowledge." In the Babylonian kingdom, with the spread of knowledge and culture in middle social groups, educational institutions of a new type appear to appear, as evidenced by the appearance on various documents of signatures of merchants and artisans.

The Edubbes were especially widespread in the Assyrian-New Babylonian period - in the 1st millennium BC. In connection with the development of the economy and culture, the strengthening of the process of division of labor in ancient Mesopotamia, the specialization of scribes was outlined, which was reflected in the nature of education in schools. The content of education began to include classes, relatively speaking, philosophy, literature, history, geometry, law, geography. In the Assyrian-New Babylonian period, schools for girls from noble families appeared, where they taught writing, religion, history and counting.

It is important to note that during this period large palace libraries were created in Ashur and Nippur. Scribes collected tablets on various topics, as evidenced by the library of King Ashurbanipal (VI century BC), special attention was paid to teaching mathematics and methods of treating various diseases.

The first information about school education in Egypt dates back to the 3rd millennium BC in Ancient Egypt. School and upbringing in this era were supposed to shape the child, adolescent, youth in accordance with the ideal of a person that had developed over millennia: a laconic man who knew how to endure hardships and calmly take the blows of fate. All education and upbringing was based on the logic of achieving such an ideal.

In Ancient Egypt, as in other countries of the Ancient East, family education played a huge role. Judging by the ancient Egyptian papyri, the Egyptians paid a lot of attention to caring for children, because, according to their beliefs, it was children who could give their parents a new life after the funeral rite. All this was reflected in the nature of education and training in schools of that time. The children had to learn the idea that a righteous life on earth determines a happy existence in the afterlife.

According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, the gods, weighing the soul of the deceased, as a weight on the scales put "maat" - a code of conduct: if the life of the deceased and "maat" were balanced, then the deceased could start a new life in the afterlife. In the spirit of preparing for the afterlife, teachings were also compiled for children, which were supposed to contribute to the formation of the morality of every Egyptian. These teachings also affirmed the very idea of the need for education and training: "Like a stone idol, an ignoramus whom his father did not teach."

The methods and techniques of school education and training used in Ancient Egypt corresponded to the then accepted ideals of man. The child had to learn first of all to listen and obey. There was an aphorism in use: "Obedience is the best for a person." The teacher used to address the student with these words: “Be attentive and listen to my speech; do not forget anything that I tell you. " The most effective way to achieve obedience was through physical punishment, which was considered natural and necessary. The motto of the school can be considered a dictum written in one of the ancient papyri: "A child carries an ear on his back, you need to beat him so that he can hear." The absolute and unconditional authority of the father and mentor was consecrated in Ancient Egypt by centuries of traditions

yami. Closely related to this is the custom of passing on the profession by inheritance - from father to son. One of the papyri, for example, lists generations of architects who belonged to the same Egyptian family. For all the conservatism of ancient Egyptian civilization, [■ as well as others, by the way, in its depths one can find processes that testify to the revision of the ideals of the individual, and with them the goals of upbringing. From the text of one of the ancient papyri, dating back to the 1st millennium BC, it can be found that even then there were different points of view regarding what a person should be. An unknown author argued with those who deviated from the traditional commitment of family and school education to the ideal of obedience: "A person who lives in faith is like a plant i in a greenhouse." This idea was not disclosed to them in detail, but the main purpose of all forms of school and family education was to develop moral qualities in children and adolescents, which they tried to implement mainly by memorizing different kinds moral admonitions, such as, for example: “It is better to rely on philanthropy than on gold in your chest; it is better to eat dry bread and rejoice in heart than to be rich and know sorrow. " Naturally, understanding such maxims at school was very difficult because they were written in hieroglyphs in an archaic language far from living speech.

In general, by the 3rd millennium BC. in Egypt, a certain institution of a "family school" was formed: an official, warrior or priest prepared his son for the profession, to which he was to devote himself in the future. Later, small groups of outsiders began to appear in such families.

A kind of public schools in Ancient Egypt (existed at temples, palaces of kings and nobles. They taught children from the age of 5. First, the future scribe had to learn to write and read hieroglyphs beautifully and correctly; then - to draw up business papers. In some schools, except In addition, they taught mathematics, geography, taught astronomy, medicine, languages of other nations. one priest to his student in this regard: "Love scripture and hate dancing. Write with your fingers all day and read at night." religious texts.

Dictation in the Ancient Egyptian School

In the era of the Old Kingdom (3 thousand years BC), they still wrote on clay shards, skin and animal bones. But already in this era, papyrus, made from a marsh plant of the same name, began to be used as a writing material. Later, papyrus became the main material for writing. The scribes and their students had a kind of writing device: a cup of water, a wooden tablet with indentations for black soot paint and red ocher paint, and a reed stick for writing. Almost all of the text was written in black paint. Red paint was used to highlight individual phrases and mark punctuation. The papyrus scrolls could be reused by washing away the previously written ones. It is interesting to note that school work usually set the time for a given lesson. The students rewrote texts that contained various knowledge. At the initial stage, they taught primarily the technique of depicting hieroglyphs, not paying attention to their meaning. Later, schoolchildren were taught eloquence, which was considered the most important quality of scribes: "Speech is stronger than weapons"; “A man’s lips save him, but his speech can destroy him,” said the ancient Egyptian papyri.

In some ancient Egyptian schools, students were also given the rudiments of mathematical knowledge that could be needed in the construction of canals, temples, pyramids, counting the harvest, astronomical calculations that were used to predict the floods of the Nile, etc. At the same time, they taught the elements of geography in combination with geometry: the student had to be able, for example, to draw a plan of the area. Gradually, the specialization of teaching began to increase in the schools of Ancient Egypt. In the era of the New Kingdom (5th century BC), schools appeared in Egypt where healers were trained. By that time, knowledge and co-

built tutorials for the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases. In the documents of that era, a description of almost fifty different diseases is given.

In the schools of Ancient Egypt, children studied from early morning until late at night. Attempts to violate the school regime were mercilessly punished. To achieve success in learning, schoolchildren had to sacrifice all childhood and youthful pleasures. This is what is said in one of the letters of the XIX dynasty, where the teacher instructs a negligent student: “Oh, write carefully, do not be lazy, otherwise you will be severely beaten ... Your hand must constantly rely on science, do not give yourself a single day of rest otherwise you will be beaten. The young man has a back; he senses when he is beaten. Listen well to what they tell you, you will benefit from it. Goats are taught to dance, horses are tamed, pigeons are forced to flock, hawks are to fly. You should not be burdened with tension of the spirit, books should not bore you, you will benefit from them. " The position of scribe was considered very prestigious. Fathers of not very noble families considered it an honor for themselves if their sons were accepted into scribes' schools. Children received instructions from their fathers, the meaning of which was that education in such a school would provide them for many years, would give them the opportunity to get rich and take a high position, to approach the clan nobility.

In the history of ancient civilizations, Education and the school of drainage, the formation of the religious in Israel, the principle of monotheism was decided

The Jewish kingdom was a factor in the development of culture, which was associated with the emergence of new moral concepts. Many sources that have come down to us testify to the difficulties in determining the criteria for Good and Evil, which the peoples of that time faced. The many deities that humans worshiped were generally evil and their wrath was to be feared. The spirits of good helped, but they could change mercy to anger at any moment ^ The mystical consciousness of people pushed them to a formal sacrifice in the form of ransom. Any sorcerer undertook to solve complex life and economic problems. The patronage of the pagan gods was weak, and their many brought great disagreements between people.

Already some Egyptian pharaohs, seeking to consolidate their power, tried to establish monotheism. So, Pharaoh Akhenaten was consigned to oblivion for this. Similar phenomena were observed in Mesopotamia and in Persia. For the first time in history, the Jewish people succeeded in establishing monotheism.

The ancient Jews came from the Semitic nomadic tribes who settled in Mesopotamia during the time of Sumer. Later, some of these tribes migrated to Egypt, where they were enslaved by the Egyptians. It was during this period, according to tradition, that the Jewish god Yahweh made a treaty with this oppressed people, and Moses (Moshe) was chosen as the mediator through whom Yahweh spoke with the Jewish people. For his good deeds, Yahweh demanded that everyone fulfill his will. The Old Testament describes both the miraculous salvation of the Jewish people from slavery, and the cruel punishment that fell to the lot of the enslavers, and mystical phenomena, and, possibly, real historical events. Mysticism and history are practically inseparable in ancient sources. It is unlikely that anyone will undertake to establish the true origin of the ten moral commandments, allegedly entrusted to Moses on Mount Sinai by Yahweh himself. But in this case it doesn't matter. The important thing is that the border between Good and Evil was drawn. Let it be conditional, not coinciding with modern ideas, but clear and understandable for people of that time. Yahweh did not accept sacrifices from sinners. The man who killed his neighbor should have been seized even near the altar and punished with death. It was assumed not only the fulfillment of the commandments of Yahweh by every Jew, but also the judgment of those who violate them - the right to judge and punish.

Along with monotheism, another feature appeared in the Hebrew religion. Yahweh was considered to be in power over all peoples and their gods, but chose only the Jewish one for guardianship. Religious and national in the consciousness of the Jews became inextricably linked.

After fleeing Egypt, the Hebrew tribes reached the country of Canaan (Palestine) and created the state of Israel, from which in 925 BC. the independent kingdom of Judah was separated. In 722 BC. Assyrian king Sargon II destroyed Samaria - the capital of Israel, captured the Israeli people and took a significant part of it to Assyria. As a result, Israel ceased to exist. In 586 BC. Nebuchadnezzar II captured the last stronghold of the Jews - Jerusalem and took the captives to Babylonia.

According to legend, it was during this period that the Jews rethought their fate. The idea of the need to beg forgiveness and freedom from the all-powerful Yahweh prevailed among them. Numerous prophets during this period became, as it were, the teachers of their people. In 538 BC. Iranian king Cyrus II set the Jewish people free.

Such complex historical twists and turns, as well as the mysticism of the consciousness of the ancient Jews were reflected in their attitude to

education, which can be characterized as a religious-national phenomenon, where both principles were one. The continuation of the family acquired a special spiritual meaning for this people, and the school began to be revered on a par with the temple. If the settlement was small and it was not possible to build a school, then the children studied in a synagogue, a prayer house. The teacher, most often a preacher, did not receive money for his labor, since it was believed that the words of the Bible, especially the Torah (Pentateuch), were given to the people by God free of charge, which means that they should also be passed on to children free of charge. Respect for the teacher was brought up in the family long before the children entered school. The ancient wisdom said: “If you saw that your father and your teacher stumbled at the same time, then give your teacher the first hand,” although the father in the family was revered as an absolute master.

Although upbringing in Jewish families was of a despotic nature, it also involved instructive conversations with children, which was prescribed by the Torah.

School education and upbringing most often consisted of three stages. The Jews created their own writing system, and at the first stage of education, children had to master the rudiments of reading and writing, which have basically survived to this day, as well as counting. In elementary school, the teacher and students sat on the floor, demonstrating their equality before God, when the older children got the opportunity to participate in the discussion, the teacher sat on a certain platform.

The Torah and Talmud - a collection of religious, ethical and legal dogmas of Judaism, as well as the interpretation of the Torah - served as the main subjects of school study. The Torah was memorized almost by heart, developing memory, which was considered by the ancient Jews to be the most important property of the mind. In the course of these activities, the children learned to reason and express what they read and memorized. The third stage of training was associated with preparation for future professional activities. Since the profession was most often inherited by the boy, his father also played the role of a teacher.

The girls were also introduced to Torah and writing, but to a lesser extent. This knowledge was necessary to comply with strict and complex traditions in housekeeping. A mother and an exemplary wife were considered the ideal of a woman. The content of Hebrew education was very scarce from the point of view of children's acquisition of practical knowledge. The Jews did not build pyramids and complex irrigation systems, did not engage in navigation and led a secluded life, only to a certain extent controlling the caravan routes passing through their country between Iran and

Egypt. The ease with which Judea submitted to the Romans suggests that they did not succeed in military affairs either. Apparently, the reasons for these phenomena lie in religion. The people chosen by God should not mix with other nations. This position was considered the most important value and Hebrew education. Purity of the soul, purity of blood, purity of food and purity of the body were considered the paths to salvation, and the achievement of these ideals was the essence of all Hebrew education, which was the focus of the school's activities.

The transition to monotheism was an important step towards considering the categories of Good and Evil, on which the ideals underlying the views on education were formed. Of course, pre-Christian morality seems today to be alien to the modern European. Principles like "an eye for an eye" are recognized today as immoral, but they have already manifested the embryos of morality that differed from the primitive taboos. Consequently, Jewish educators already had a subject for discussion with children, which was the first, albeit small, step towards understanding the norms and principles of justice through education.

After the conquest of Judea by Rome in the VI century. BC. the Jewish people settled almost all over the world, but elements of their ancient faith and traditions of upbringing continue to persist to this day, and centuries-old discussions are conducted around them. Education and school DR ^ nii Iran is a country that in Ancient Iran was inhabited by ° D IN of the most mysterious

of the peoples of the Earth - the Aryans. Hindus, Germans, Celts, Italians, Greeks, Balts, some Slavic peoples are in historical relationship with the Aryans, traces of which are found not only in Western Europe, but also in the Himalayas, and in Mongolia, and in the Urals. The tribes of the ancient Persians were in the 1st century. BC. the Middle Eastern branch of the Aryans and were united by a faith that originated, perhaps, from the Indian Vedas, which later became the basis for many independent beliefs. Zoroastrianism is another example of monotheism. Here, the worship of the main god Ahurmazda, personifying Good in the eternal struggle between Good and Evil, left an imprint on the nature of education.

The Institute of School and Education, as a special specialized field of activity, originates in ancient Mesopotamia. This was a natural process associated with the need for educated workers in a wide variety of areas in the civil service. Those states with a highly developed bureaucratic apparatus required a large number of scribes for their service to keep records, inventory, documentation, etc. In the temples, which were also the centers of power in the ancient East, in turn, priests were required to perform a wide range of works. For a long time in the interfluve there were no educational institutions that would allow one or another specialization to be mastered.

Like any institution, the educational system evolved gradually, and took its origins in the family, where, based on family-patriarchal traditions, the older generation passed on the accumulated knowledge to the younger, as their successor. In ancient societies, special attention was paid to the role of the family as a basic institution of socialization. The family was obliged to provide the initial basic elements of upbringing and education, thereby bringing the child into society as a full citizen. Initially, such traditions were enshrined in ancient literary monuments of an edifying and instructive nature, such as "schoolchildren's day". This was not spelled out in legislation anywhere, however, much attention was paid to intrafamily relationships in the provisions of the "Hammurabi Code", which spells out many points regarding education your child or pupil, teaching him a craft, etc.

In Mesopotamia, the skill of scribes was inherited from father to son. The senior scribe taught his son to read and write, or he could take someone else's youth as his assistants. In the early days, this kind of private mentoring was sufficient to prepare scribes for their normal daily activities. In this regard, the relationship between the teacher and his student was closer than later. When reading the texts on clay tablets, you can find out that the teachers called their students sons, and those, in turn, called their mentors fathers. From this there was a long-held belief that the transfer of the art of the scribe was exclusively between family members. But, having studied the culture and social relations of the ancient Sumerians, it becomes clear that non-native people could speak of each other in this way. The fact is that the scribe "adopted" the student, becoming his mentor and responsible for him, and such a relationship continued until the young man became a full-fledged scribe. In school tablets you can sometimes read that the students called themselves "the sons of their teachers-scribes", although they were not relatives.

From time on, such groups of teachers and students began to increase, there were more students, the small room in the scribe's house was not very suitable for conducting training sessions. In an intellectual society, the question arose about the organization of premises for conducting classes.

Thus, the prerequisites arose for the organization of state institutions, the purpose of which would be the training of future scribes, officials and priests.

The first schools that arose in ancient Mesopotamia are considered the most ancient in the world. In the ruins of the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, along with the earliest written monuments, archaeologists have discovered a large number of school texts. Among the tablets found in the ruins of Ur, dating from approximately XXVIII-XXVII centuries. BC BC, there were hundreds of educational texts with exercises performed by students during lessons. Discovered many educational tablets with lists of gods, systematized lists of all kinds of animals and plants. The overall percentage of school tablets in relation to the rest of the texts turned out to be impressive. For example, the collection of the Berlin Museum contains about 80 school texts from 235 clay tablets excavated in Shuruppak and dating back to the first half of the 3rd millennium. Those school tablets were of particular value also because many of them contain the names of the scribes - the compilers of the tablets. Scientists read 43 names. School plaques also bear the names of those who made them. From such sources it became possible to learn about the organization of schools, the relationship between teachers and students, the subjects studied in schools and the methods of teaching them.

The first schools that arose in Mesopotamia were located at temples. In Mesopotamia, they were called "house of tablets," or edubba, and were widespread in ancient Sumeria. During the heyday of the Old Babylonian kingdom (1st half of the 2nd millennium BC), palace and temple schools began to play an important role in education and upbringing, which were usually located in religious buildings - ziggurats, where there were libraries and premises for the occupation of scribes. Such, in modern terms, the complexes were called "houses of knowledge", and according to some versions, they were analogous to higher educational institutions. In Babylonia, with the spread of knowledge and culture in middle social groups, educational institutions of a new type appear to appear, as evidenced by the appearance on various documents of the signatures of merchants and artisans. There were also schools in the royal palace - there, apparently, they trained court officials, or on the territory of temples - future priests studied there. For quite a long time, there was an opinion that schools were exclusively attached to churches. This could well have happened in some places and in certain periods, but this was clearly not the case, because the documentary literary sources of that time are not related to temples. Buildings have been found that, according to the archaeologists working there, by their layout or by the presence of school tablets nearby, could have been classrooms. The Sumerian school, which apparently began as a special service at the temples, eventually became a secular institution.

The emergence of private schools falls on the period of the Akkadian literary canon, at the end of the III millennium BC. e. The role of school education intensifies in the 1st millennium BC. e.

The first private schools were probably located in the large houses of the scribe teachers. Widespread business correspondence in Mesopotamia, especially at the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e., indicates the development of school education in secondary social groups.

The school building was a large room divided into two parts. In the first part there was a classroom, which consisted of a row of benches. There were no tables or desks, however, scribes in Ancient Sumer were depicted sitting on the floor with their legs crossed. The disciples sat with a clay tablet in their left hand and a reed style tablet in their right. In the second part of the classroom, fenced off by a partition, sat the teachers and a man who was making new clay tablets. The school also had a yard for walking and relaxation. At palaces, temples, schools and colleges there were departments of the library of "clay books in different languages". The library catalogs have been preserved.

It is known from sources that the school could have either one teacher or several performing different functions. Edubbu was headed by a "father-teacher", probably, his functions were something similar to those of the headmaster of the school today, while the rest of the teachers were called "father's brothers", some texts mention a teacher with rods who kept order, and also about the assistant teacher who made new clay tablets. So, the teacher's assistant was listed as "big brother", and his duties included compiling samples of plates for copying, checking copies of students, listening to assignments by heart. Other teachers under the Edubbes were, for example, "responsible for drawing" and "responsible for the Sumerian language" (the period when the Sumerian language became dead and was studied only in schools). There were also wardens overseeing the visit and inspectors in charge of discipline.

Of the countless documents, not one has been found that listed the teachers' salaries. And here the question arises: how did the Edubb teachers earn their living? And the work of teachers was paid at the expense of the parents of schoolchildren.

Education in Sumer was paid, and, apparently, quite expensive, since ordinary peasants and artisans did not have the opportunity to send their children to the Edubba. And it didn’t make much sense: the son of a peasant, artisan or worker, who from an early age helped with the housework or work, would continue his father’s business or start his own similar work. While the children of nobles and officials, highly respected and prestigious groups in Sumerian society, in turn will continue the careers of fathers - scribes. From this it follows a logical conclusion that school education was a prestigious and ambitious business, representing great career opportunities for future employees of the state apparatus. How long the parents of a student could pay for his stay within the walls of the school largely depended on whether their son would be a simple copyist of texts or go further and receive, along with an in-depth education, a decent public office. However, modern historians have reason to believe that especially gifted children from poor families had the opportunity to continue their education.

The pupils themselves were divided into younger and older "children" of the Edubba, and the graduate - "the son of the school of yesteryear." The class system and age differentiation did not exist: the novice students sat, repeating their lesson or copying the copybooks, next to the overage, almost complete scribes who had their own much more complex tasks.

The issue of female education in schools remains controversial, since it is not known for certain whether girls studied in edubbes or not. A weighty argument in favor of the fact that girls did not receive an education in schools was the fact that the female names of the scribes who sign their authorship are not found on the clay tablets. It is possible that women did not become professional scribes, but among them, especially among the priestesses of the highest rank, there could well be educated and enlightened people. However, in the Old Babylonian period, at the temple in the city of Sippar, there was one of the women scribes, in addition, women scribes met among the servants and in the royal harems. Most likely, female education was very little widespread and associated with narrow fields of activity.

To date, it is not known exactly at what age education officially began. The ancient tablet refers to this age as "early adolescence," which probably meant less than ten years of age, although this is not entirely clear. The approximate period of study in edubbach is from eight to nine years and graduation from twenty-twenty-two.

The schools were "coming". The students lived at home, got up at sunrise, took lunch from their mothers, and hurried to school. If he happened to be late, he received a proper flogging; the same fate awaited him for any wrongdoing during school hours or for not doing the exercises properly. The practice of corporal punishment was common in the ancient East. Working all day with texts, reading and rewriting cuneiform, the students returned home in the evening. Archaeologists have discovered a number of clay tablets, which could easily pass for the students' homework assignments. In the ancient Sumerian school text, conventionally called "the day of the student", describing the day of one student, there was a confirmation of the above.

An interesting detail of school life that Professor Kramer discovered is the monthly amount of time students were given as days off. In a tablet found in the city of Ur, a student writes: "The calculation of the time that I spend every month in the" house of tablets "is as follows: I have three free days a month, holidays are three days a month. Twenty-four days of each month I live in the house of tablets. These are the long days. "

The main method of upbringing in school, as well as in a family, was the example of elders. One of the clay tablets, for example, contains an appeal from the father, in which the head of the family calls on his schoolboy son to follow the good examples of relatives, friends and wise people.

In order to stimulate the desire for education in students, along with textbooks, teachers created a large number of instructive and edifying texts. Sumerian edifying literature was intended directly for the education of students, and included proverbs, sayings, teachings, dialogues-disputes about superiority, fables and scenes from school life.

The most famous edifying texts have been translated into many modern languages, and titled by scientists something like this: "School days", "School disputes", "The clerk and his unlucky son", "Conversation of the corner and the clerk." From the above sources, it was possible to fully imagine the picture of the school day in ancient Sumeria... The main meaning invested in these works was the praise of the profession of a scribe, teaching students about diligent behavior, the desire to comprehend the sciences, etc.

From a very early time, proverbs and sayings become a favorite material for training writing skills and oral Sumerian speech. Later, whole compositions of a moral and ethical nature were created from this material - texts of teachings, of which the most famous are "The Teachings of Shuruppak" and "Wise Advice". In the teachings, practical advice is mixed with various kinds of prohibitions on magical actions - taboo. In order to confirm the authority of the instructive texts, it is said about their unique origin: allegedly, all these advice at the beginning of time was given by the father to Ziusudra, the righteous man who was saved from the flood. Scenes from school life provide insight into the relationship between teachers and students, about the daily routine of students and about the program.

With regard to examinations, the question of their form and content remains unexplored, as well as whether they were ubiquitous or only in some schools. There are data from school tablets, which say that at the end of his studies, a graduate of the school should have had a good command of the words of various professions (the language of priests, shepherds, sailors, jewelers) and be able to translate them into Akkadian. It was his responsibility to know the intricacies of the art of singing and calculations. Most likely, these were the prototypes of modern examinations.

After leaving school, the student received the title of scribe (oak-cap) and was hired to work, where he could become either a state or temple, or a private scribe or scribe-translator. The state scribe was in the service in the palace, he was the royal inscriptions, decrees and laws. The temple scribe, accordingly, conducted economic calculations, but could also perform more interesting work, for example, write down various texts of a liturgical nature from the lips of the priests or conduct astronomical observations. A private scribe worked in the household of a large nobleman and could not count on something interesting for an educated person. The scribe-translator traveled to a variety of jobs, often at war and at diplomatic negotiations.

After graduation, some of the graduates stayed at the school, played the role of "older brother", prepared new tablets and wrote instructive or educational texts. Thanks to school (and partly temple) scribes, priceless monuments of Sumerian literature have come down to us. The profession of a scribe gave a person a good salary, scribes in ancient Mesopotamia were ranked among the class of artisans and received a corresponding salary as well as respect in society.

In the civilizations of the ancient East, where literacy was not the privilege of most strata of society, schools were not only institutions for the training of future officials and priests, but also centers of culture and the development of scientific knowledge of antiquity. The rich heritage of ancient civilizations has survived to this day thanks to a huge number scientific texts stored in schools and libraries. There were also private libraries, located in private houses, which were collected for themselves by scribes. The tablets were not collected for educational purposes, but simply for oneself, which was the usual way of collecting collections. Some, perhaps the most learned, scribes have succeeded in creating, with the help of their students, a personal collection of tablets. Scribes of schools that existed at palaces and temples were economically secure and had free time, which allowed them to be interested in special topics. This is how the collections of tablets for various branches of knowledge were created, which Assyriologists usually call libraries. The oldest library is the library of Tiglatpalasarom I (1115-1093), located in the beard of Ashur. One of the largest libraries of the ancient Mesopotamia is the library of the Akkadian king Ashurbanapal, who is considered one of the most educated monarchs of his time. In it, archaeologists discovered more than 10,000 tablets and, based on sources, the king was very interested in the accumulation of more more texts. Temples often comprised vast collections of religious texts from ancient times. The pride of the temples was to have preserved Sumerian originals, which were considered sacred and especially revered. If there were no originals, then they took for a while the most important texts from other churches and collections and copied them. In this way, most of the Sumerian spiritual heritage, primarily myths and epics, was preserved and passed on to posterity. Even if the original documents disappeared long ago, their content remained famous people thanks to numerous copies. Since the spiritual and cultural life of the population of Mesopotamia was thoroughly permeated with spiritual ideas, their own patron gods also began to appear in the field of education. For example, the story of a goddess named Nisaba is associated with this phenomenon. The name of this goddess originally sounded nin-she-ba ("lady of the barley diet").

At first, she personified sacrificial barley, then - the process of accounting for this barley, and later she became responsible for all counting and accounting work, becoming the goddess of school and literate writing.

The rich heritage of ancient civilizations has survived to this day thanks to the huge number of scientific texts stored in schools and libraries. There were also private libraries, located in private houses, which were collected for themselves by scribes. The tablets were not collected for educational purposes, but simply for oneself, which was the usual way of collecting collections.

Some, perhaps the most learned, scribes have succeeded in creating, with the help of their students, a personal collection of tablets. Scribes of schools that existed at palaces and temples were economically secure and had free time, which allowed them to be interested in special topics.

This is how the collections of tablets for various branches of knowledge were created, which Assyriologists usually call libraries. The oldest library is the library of Tiglatpalasarom I (1115-1093), located in the city of Ashur.

One of the largest libraries of the ancient Mesopotamia is the library of the Akkadian king Ashurbanapal, who is considered one of the most educated monarchs of his time. In it, archaeologists have discovered more than 10,000 tablets and, based on the sources, the king was very interested in the accumulation of even more texts. He specially sent his people to Babylonia in search of texts and showed such a great interest in collecting tablets that he personally was involved in the selection of texts for the library.

Many texts were copied very carefully for this library with scientific accuracy according to a certain standard.

Education and schools of the Ancient East

Plan:

1. Education, training and schools in Mesopotamia.

2. Education, training and schools in Ancient Egypt.

3. Education, training and schools in Ancient India.

4. Education, training and schools in Ancient China.

Mesopotamia

Approximately 4 thousand years BC. city-states emerged in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Sumer and Akkad, which existed here almost before the beginning of our era, and other ancient states, such as Babylon and Assyria.

All of them had a fairly viable culture. Astronomy, mathematics, agriculture developed here, an original writing system was created, and various arts arose.

In the cities of Mesopotamia, there was a practice of tree planting, canals were laid with bridges across them, palaces were erected for the nobility. There were schools in almost every city, the history of which dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. and reflected the needs of the development of the economy, culture, in need of literate people - scribes. The scribes on the social ladder were high enough. The first schools for their preparation in Mesopotamia were called “ houses of plaques"(In Sumerian – edubba), from the name of the clay tablets on which the cuneiform was applied. The letters were carved with a wooden chisel on raw clay tiles, which were then fired. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. scribes began to use wooden tablets covered with a thin layer of wax, on which cuneiform signs were scratched.

Example of a clay tablet

Gradually, the Edubbes acquired autonomy. Basically, these schools were small, with one teacher who was responsible for both running the school and making new sample tablets that the students memorized by rewriting them into exercise tablets. In large "houses of tablets", apparently, there were special teachers of writing, counting, drawing, as well as a special steward who monitored the order and course of classes. Education in schools was paid... To gain additional attention from the teacher, the parents made offerings to him.

initially goals school education were narrow: the preparation of scribes necessary for economic life. Later, the Edubbes began to gradually turn into centers of culture and education. Large book depositories arose under them.

The emerging school as an educational institution was nourished by the traditions of patriarchal family education and, at the same time, craft apprenticeship. The influence of the family and community way of life on the school persisted throughout history. ancient states Mesopotamia. The family continued to play the main role in the upbringing of children. As follows from the "Code of Hammurabi", the father was responsible for preparing his son for life and was obliged to teach him his craft. The main method upbringing in the family and school was an example of elders. In one of the clay tablets, which contains the address of the father to the son, the father encourages him to follow the positive examples of relatives, friends and wise rulers.

Edubba was headed by "father", teachers were called "father's brothers". The pupils were divided into older and younger "children of the edubba". Education at Edubba was seen primarily as preparation for the craft of a scribe... The students had to learn the technique of making clay tablets, master the system of cuneiform writing. During the years of study, the student had to make a complete set of tablets with the prescribed texts. Throughout the history of "houses of plates", universal teaching methods in them were memorization and rewriting... The lesson consisted in memorizing the "model plates" and copying them in the "exercise plates". The raw exercise tablets were corrected by the teacher. Later, exercises such as "dictations" were sometimes used. Thus, the teaching methodology was based on repeated repetition, memorization of columns of words, texts, tasks and their solutions. However, it was also used clarification method teacher of difficult words and texts. It can be assumed that the training also used reception of dialogue-dispute, and not only with a teacher or student, but also with an imaginary subject. Pupils were divided into pairs and, under the guidance of the teacher, they proved or refuted certain provisions.

Two languages were studied in schools: Akkadian and Sumerian. Sumerian language in the first third of the 2nd millennium BC already ceased to be a means of communication and remained only as the language of science and religion. In modern times, Latin played a similar role in Europe. Depending on the further specialization, future scribes were given knowledge in the field of language proper, mathematics and astronomy. As can be understood from the tablets of that time, a graduate of edubbu had to master writing, four arithmetic operations, the art of a singer and a musician, navigate the laws, and know the ritual of performing cult acts. He had to be able to measure fields, divide property, understand fabrics, metals, plants, understand the professional language of priests, artisans, and shepherds.

The Edubbes were especially widespread in the Assyrian-New Babylonian period - in the 1st millennium BC. In connection with the development of the economy, culture, the strengthening of the process of division of labor in Ancient Mesopotamia, the specialization of scribes was outlined, which was reflected in the nature of teaching in schools. The content of education began to include classes, relatively speaking, philosophy, literature, history, geometry, law, geography. In the Assyrian-New Babylonian period, schools for girls from noble families appeared, where they taught writing, religion, history and counting.

It is important to note that large palace libraries were created during this period. Scribes collected tablets on various topics, as evidenced by the library of King Ashurbanipal (VI century BC), special attention was paid to teaching mathematics and methods of treating various diseases.

Egypt

The first information about schooling in Egypt dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. School and upbringing in this era were supposed to form a child, adolescent, youth in accordance with the prevailing over the millennia ideal of man : laconic, who knew how to endure hardships and calmly take the blows of fate. All education and upbringing was based on the logic of achieving such an ideal.

In Ancient Egypt, as in other countries of the Ancient East, played a huge role family education... The relationship between a woman and a man in the family was built on a fairly humane basis, as evidenced by the fact that equal attention was paid to boys and girls. Judging by the ancient Egyptian papyri, the Egyptians paid a lot of attention to caring for children, because, according to their beliefs, it was children who could give their parents a new life after the funeral rite. All this was reflected in the nature of education and training in schools of that time. Children should have internalized the idea that righteous life on earth determines a happy existence in the afterlife.

According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, the gods, weighing the soul of the deceased, put “ maat "- a code of conduct: if the life of the deceased and" maat "were balanced, then the deceased could start a new life in the afterlife. In the spirit of preparing for the afterlife, teachings were also compiled for children, which were supposed to contribute to the formation of the morality of every Egyptian. These teachings also affirmed the very idea of the need for education and training: "Like a stone idol, an ignoramus whom his father did not teach."

The methods and techniques of school education and training used in Ancient Egypt corresponded to the then accepted ideals of man. The child had to, first of all, learn to listen and obey. There was an aphorism in use: "Obedience is the best for a person." The teacher used to address the student with these words: “Be attentive and listen to my speech; do not forget anything that I tell you. " The most effective way to achieve obedience was physical punishment that were considered natural and necessary. The motto of the school can be considered a saying recorded in one of the ancient papyri: “ The child carries an ear on his back, you need to beat him so that he can hear". The absolute and unconditional authority of the father and mentor was consecrated in Ancient Egypt by centuries of traditions. Closely related to this is the custom of transmitting inherited profession- from father to son. One of the papyri, for example, lists generations of architects who belonged to the same Egyptian family.

The main purpose of all forms of school and family education was to develop moral qualities in children and adolescents, which they tried to accomplish mainly by memorizing various kinds of moral instructions. In general, by the 3rd millennium BC. in Egypt, a certain institution of "family school" was formed: an official, warrior or priest prepared his son for a profession to which he was to devote himself in the future. Later, small groups of outsiders began to appear in such families.

Kind public Schools in ancient Egypt existed at temples, palaces of kings and nobles. They taught children from 5 years old. First, the future scribe had to learn to write and read hieroglyphs beautifully and correctly; then - to draw up business papers. In some schools, in addition, they taught mathematics, geography, taught astronomy, medicine, languages of other peoples. To learn to read, a student had to memorize over 700 hieroglyphs., be able to use fluent, simplified and classical ways of writing hieroglyphs, which in itself required a lot of effort. As a result of such classes, the student had to master two styles of writing: business - for secular needs, and also the statutory, in which they wrote religious texts.

In the era of the Old Kingdom (3 thousand years BC), they still wrote on clay shards, skin and animal bones. But already in this era, papyrus, a paper made from a marsh plant of the same name, began to be used as a writing material. Later, papyrus became the main material for writing. The scribes and their students had a kind of writing device: a cup of water, a wooden tablet with indentations for black soot paint and red ocher paint, and a reed stick for writing. Almost all of the text was written in black paint. Red paint was used to highlight individual phrases and mark punctuation. The papyrus scrolls could be reused by washing away the previously written ones. It is interesting to note that at school work, they usually set the time for the completion of a given lesson.... The students rewrote texts that contained various knowledge. At the initial stage, they taught, first of all, the technique of depicting hieroglyphs, without paying attention to their meaning. Later, schoolchildren were taught eloquence, which was considered the most important quality of scribes: "Speech is stronger than weapons."

India

The culture of the Dravidian tribes - the indigenous population of India until the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. - approached the level of culture of the early states of Mesopotamia, as a result of which the upbringing and education of children was of a family and school nature, and the role of the family was dominant... Schools in the Indus river valley appeared presumably in the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. and by their nature were similar, as one might suppose, to the schools of ancient Mesopotamia.

In the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. Aryan tribes invaded the territory of India from Ancient Persia... The relationship between the main population and the Aryan conquerors gave birth to a system that later became known as caste: the entire population of Ancient India began to be divided into four castes.

The descendants of the Aryans were three higher castes: brahmanas(priests) kshatriyas(warriors) and vaisyas(communal peasants, artisans, merchants). The fourth - the lowest - caste were sudras(employees, servants, slaves). The brahmana caste enjoyed the greatest privileges. The kshatriyas, being professional soldiers, participated in campaigns and battles, and in peacetime were supported by the state. Vaisyas belonged to the working population. The sudras had no rights.

In accordance with this social division, the upbringing and education of children was based on the idea that each person must develop his moral, physical and mental qualities in order to become a full member of his caste... For brahmanas, righteousness and purity of thoughts were considered the leading qualities of a personality, for kshatriyas - courage and courage, for vaisyas - diligence and patience, for sudra - humility and resignation.

The main goals of raising children of the higher castes in Ancient India by the middle of the 1st millennium BC were were: physical development - hardening, the ability to control your body; mental development - clarity of mind and rationality of behavior; spiritual development- the ability to self-knowledge. It was believed that a person was born for a life filled with happiness. The children of the higher castes were brought up with the following qualities: love of nature, a sense of beauty, self-discipline, self-control, restraint. Models of upbringing were drawn, first of all, in the legends about Krishna - the divine and wise king.

An example of ancient Indian edifying literature can be considered “ Bhagavad gita"- a monument to the religious and philosophical thought of Ancient India, containing the philosophical basis of Hinduism (middle of the 1st millennium BC), was not only sacred, but also an educational book written in the form of a conversation between a student and a wise teacher. In the form of a teacher, Krishna himself appears here, in the form of a student - the royal son Arjuna, who, getting into difficult life situations, sought advice from the teacher and, receiving explanations, rose to a new level of knowledge and performance. Teaching had to be structured in the form of questions and answers: first, the communication of new knowledge in a holistic form, then consideration of it from various angles. At the same time, the disclosure of abstract concepts was combined with the presentation of specific examples.

The essence of teaching, as follows from the Bhagavad Gita, consisted in the fact that gradually becoming more complicated tasks of specific content were set before the student, the solution of which was to lead to finding the truth. The learning process was figuratively compared to a battle, winning in which the student rose to perfection.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. there is a certain educational tradition... The first stage of upbringing and education was the prerogative of the family; of course, systematic education was not provided here. For representatives of the three higher castes, it began after a special ritual of initiation into adults - “ upanayama". Those who did not undergo this ritual were despised by society; they were deprived of the right to have a spouse of a representative of their caste, to receive further education. The order of teaching with a specialist teacher was largely based on the type of family relations: the student was considered a member of the teacher's family, and in addition to mastering literacy and knowledge, which was mandatory for that time, he learned the rules of behavior in the family. The terms of "Upanayama" and the content of further education were not the same for the representatives of the three higher castes. For the brahmanas, the Upanayama began at the age of eight, the kshatriyas at the age of eleven, and the vaisya at the age of twelve.

The most extensive was the program of education among the brahmins; classes for them consisted of mastering the traditional understanding of the Vedas, mastering the skills of reading and writing. The Kshatriyas and Vaisyas studied according to a similar, but somewhat abbreviated program. In addition, the children of the Kshatriyas acquired knowledge and skills in the art of war, and the children of the Vaisya - in agriculture and crafts. Their education could last up to eight years, then followed by another 3-4 years, during which the students were engaged in practical activities in their teacher's house.

The prototype of advanced education can be considered the classes to which a few young men from the upper caste devoted themselves. They visited a teacher known for his knowledge - a guru ("honored", "worthy") and participated in meetings and disputes of learned men. The so-called forest schools where their faithful disciples gathered around the hermit gurus. There were usually no special rooms for training sessions; the training took place in the open air, under the trees. The main form of compensation for education was the help of pupils to the teacher's family with the housework..

A new period in the history of ancient Indian education begins in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when significant changes were outlined in ancient Indian society associated with the emergence of a new religion - Buddhism , whose ideas were reflected in education. Buddhist teaching tradition had its origins in educational and religious activities Buddha. In the religion of Buddhism, he is a being who has reached the state of the highest perfection, who opposed the monopolization of the religious cult by the Brahmans and for the equalization of castes in the sphere of religious life and upbringing. He preached non-resistance to evil and renunciation of all desires, which corresponded to the concept “ nirvana". According to legend, Buddha began his educational activities in a "forest school" near the city of Benares. Around him, a hermit teacher, groups of volunteer disciples gathered, to whom he preached his teachings. Buddhism paid special attention to the individual, questioning the inviolability of the principle of inequality of castes and recognizing the equality of people from birth. Therefore, people of any caste were accepted into Buddhist communities.

According to Buddhism, the main task of upbringing was the inner improvement of a person, whose soul should be rid of worldly passions through self-knowledge and self-improvement. In the process of seeking knowledge, Buddhists distinguished between the stages of concentrated attentive assimilation and consolidation. Its most important result was considered to be the knowledge of the previously unknown.

By the III century. BC. in ancient India, various versions of alphabetic-syllabic writing had already been developed, which was reflected in the spread of literacy. During the Buddhist period, primary education was carried out in the religious "schools of the Vedas" and in secular schools. Both types of schools existed autonomously. The teacher in them worked with each student separately. The content of education in the "schools of the Vedas" (the Vedas are hymns of religious content) reflected their caste nature and had a religious orientation. In secular schools, students were admitted regardless of caste and religious affiliation, and the training here was of a practical nature. The content of teaching in schools at monasteries included the study of ancient treatises on philosophy, mathematics, medicine, etc.

At the beginning of our era, views on the ultimate tasks of education began to change in India: it was supposed not only to help a person learn to distinguish between the essential and the transitory, to achieve spiritual harmony and peace, to reject the vain and transitory, but also achieve real results in life. This led to the fact that in addition to Sanskrit, schools at Hindu temples began to teach reading and writing in local languages, and at Brahman temples a two-stage education system began to take shape: elementary schools ("tol") and schools of complete education ("agrahar"). The latter were, as it were, communities of scientists and their students. The training program in "agrahar" in the process of their development gradually became less abstract, taking into account the needs of practical life. Access to education for children from different castes has been expanded. In this regard, they began to teach here in a larger volume the elements of geography, mathematics, languages; began to teach healing, sculpture, painting and other arts.

A disciple usually lived in the house of a teacher-guru, who, by personal example, taught him honesty, loyalty to faith, and obedience to his parents. The disciples had to obey their guru unquestioningly. The social status of the guru mentor was very high. The student had to honor the teacher more than his parents. The profession of a teacher-educator was considered the most honorable in comparison with other professions.

China

The upbringing and educational traditions of upbringing and teaching children in ancient China, as well as in other countries of the East, were based on the experience of family upbringing, rooted in the primitive era. It was necessary for everyone to observe numerous traditions that regulated life and disciplined the behavior of each family member. So, it was impossible to pronounce swear words, to commit acts harmful to the family and elders. At the heart of intrafamily relations was the respect of the younger elders, the school mentor was revered as a father. The role of educator and upbringing in ancient China was extremely great, and the activity of a teacher-educator was considered very honorable.

The history of the Chinese school is rooted in antiquity. According to legend, the first schools in China emerged in the 3rd millennium BC. The first written evidence of the existence of schools in ancient China has been preserved in various inscriptions related to the earliest era Shang (Yin) (16-11 centuries BC). Only children of free and wealthy people studied in these schools. By this time, a hieroglyphic script already existed, which was owned, as a rule, by the so-called writing priests. The ability to use writing was inherited and spread extremely slowly in society. At first, hieroglyphs were carved on turtle shells and animal bones, and then (in the 10th - 9th centuries BC) - on bronze vessels. Further, until the beginning of the new era, for writing, they used split bamboo, tied into plates, as well as silk, on which they wrote with the juice of a lacquer tree, using a sharpened bamboo stick. In the III century. BC. nail polish and bamboo stick were gradually replaced by mascara and a hairbrush. At the beginning of the II century. AD paper appears. After the invention of paper and ink, teaching writing techniques became easier. Even earlier, in the XIII-XII centuries. BC, the content of school education provided for mastering six arts: morality, writing, counting, music, archery, horseback riding and harness riding.

In the VI century. BC. in ancient China, several philosophical trends were formed, the most famous of which were Confucianism and Taoism, which had a strong influence on the development of pedagogical thought in the future.

The greatest impact on the development of upbringing, education and pedagogical thought in ancient China was Confucius(551-479 BC). The pedagogical ideas of Confucius were based on his interpretation of ethical issues and the foundations of government. He paid special attention to the moral self-improvement of man. The central element of his teaching was the thesis of correct education as an indispensable condition for the prosperity of the state. Correct upbringing was, according to Confucius, the main factor of human existence. According to Confucius, the natural in man is the material from which, with proper upbringing, an ideal personality can be created. However, Confucius did not consider education to be omnipotent, since the capabilities of different people are naturally not the same. By natural inclinations Confucius distinguished “ sons of heaven "- people who have the highest innate wisdom and can claim to be rulers; people who have mastered knowledge through teaching and are able to become " mainstay of the state "; and finally black - people who are incapable of the difficult process of comprehending knowledge. Confucius endowed the ideal person, formed by upbringing, with especially high qualities: nobility, striving for truth, truthfulness, reverence, and a rich spiritual culture. He expressed the idea of the versatile development of the individual, while giving priority over education to the moral principle.

His pedagogical views are reflected in the book "Conversations and Judgments" , containing, according to legend, a record of Confucius's conversations with students, which students memorized, starting from the II century. BC. Teaching, according to Confucius, was to be based on the dialogue of the teacher with the student, on the classification and comparison of facts and phenomena, on imitation of models.

In general, the Confucian approach to teaching is enclosed in a capacious formula: agreement between student and teacher, ease of learning, encouragement to independent reflection - this is what is called skillful leadership. Therefore, in ancient China great importance the independence of students in mastering knowledge was given, as well as the ability of teachers to teach their students to independently raise questions and find their solutions.

The Confucian system of upbringing and education was developed Mengzi(c. 372-289 BC) and Xunzi(c. 313 - c. 238 BC). They both had many students. Mengzi put forward the thesis of the good nature of man and therefore defined the goal of education as the formation of good people with high moral qualities. Xunzi, on the contrary, put forward the thesis about the evil nature of man and from here he saw the task of education in overcoming this evil principle. In the process of education and training, he considered it necessary to take into account the abilities and individual characteristics of students.

During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism was declared the official ideology. During this period, education in China became widespread. The prestige of an educated person has grown noticeably, as a result of which a kind of cult of education has developed. The school business itself gradually turned into an integral part of state policy. It was during this period that the system arose state exams to take up bureaucratic positions, which opened the way to a bureaucratic career.

Already in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, during the short reign of the Qin dynasty (221-207 BC), a centralized state was formed in China, in which a number of reforms were carried out, in particular, simplification and unification of hieroglyphic writing, which was of great importance for the spread of literacy. For the first time in the history of China, a centralized education system was created, which consisted of government and private schools... From then until the beginning of the XX century. in China, these two types of traditional educational institutions continued to coexist.

Already during the reign of the Han dynasty, astronomy, mathematics and medicine developed in China, the loom was invented, paper production began, which was of great importance for the spread of literacy and enlightenment. In the same era, a three-stage system of schools began to form, consisting of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions. The latter were created by state authorities to educate children from wealthy families. Each such higher school trained up to 300 people. The training content was based, first of all, on textbooks compiled by Confucius.

Pupils received a fairly wide range of predominantly humanitarian knowledge, the basis of which was the ancient Chinese traditions, laws and documents.

Confucianism, which became the official ideology of the state, affirmed the divinity of the supreme power, the division of people into higher and lower ones. The basis of the life of society was the moral improvement of all its members and the observance of all prescribed ethical standards.