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Relief, geological structure and minerals of russia. Features of the relief as a result of the geological history of the formation of the territory Geological structure and relief

Most of the territory of Ukraine (95%) is occupied by plains. Mountains rise only in the west and extreme south of our country. The flat expanses of Ukraine are heterogeneous in terms of the nature of the relief and the height above sea level. Lowlands and hills are distinguished here, occupying 70% and 25% of its territory, respectively. The absolute heights of the flat part range from -5 m on the coast of the Khadzhibey estuary to 515 m on the Khotin Upland (Berda), which is located between the Dniester and Prut rivers.

Average heights of the entire territory of Ukraine do not exceed 170-180 m above sea level. The highest point is located in the Ukrainian Carpathians. This is Mount Hoverla with an absolute height of 2061 m.

In general, the territory of our country has a general slope from north to south, from the Polesye lowland to the Black Sea. A decrease in the relief is well expressed from the western and eastern outskirts to the Dnieper valley. The only exceptions are mountainous areas and the plain of the Crimean peninsula is inclined to the north.

Tectonic structure and tectonic structures

Within our country, rocks with an age of 37 billion years have been discovered, lying on the Ukrainian crystalline shield.

The territory of Ukraine mainly lies within two large structures - the East European platform and the Alpine-Himalayan fold belt (its Mediterranean region). In the relief, the platform corresponds to the East European Plain, and the belts correspond to the medium-altitude ridges of the Carpathians and Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula. Three more structures occupy much less area and are poorly expressed in the relief. This is a small section of the Western European Platform (a narrow strip

stretches from the border with Poland to the mouth of a tributary of the Dniester - the Stryi River) and destroyed and buried Hercynian structures of Dobrudzha (between the lower reaches of the Danube and Dniester) and the Scythian plate (northern flat part of Crimea).

Within the framework of the East European platform, the Ukrainian crystalline shield, the Volyn-Podolsk plate, the Galicia-Volyn, Dnieper-Donetsk and Black Sea depressions, the Donetsk fold structure and the slope of the Voronezh crystalline massif are distinguished.

The Mediterranean folded area began to form intensively 100-25 million years ago by active tectonic movements. The mountain building process continues here in the modern period. Within the fold area on the territory of Ukraine, the Crimean fold system and the Carpathian mountain structure with adjacent foredeeps and a volcanic ridge are distinguished.

Features of the geological structure of the territory of Ukraine

The main part of the territory of Ukraine was formed in the Precambrian time. This is the southern part of the ancient East European platform. In its place in the Archean and Proterozoic eras, island arcs, marginal seas, oceanic trenches, and the like, repeatedly appeared. Vertical and horizontal movements of the earth's crust led to collapse into folds and the emergence of mountain ranges. Ancient mountains collapsed and formed a rigid crystalline foundation of the platform, slowing down tectonic movements within its limits.

Approximately 1,700 million years ago, the formation stage was completed East European platforms. Its further development is associated mainly with the slow fluctuations of the land. The oldest core around which the platform was formed is the Ukrainian crystal shield.,

During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras the platform part of Ukraine underwent significant uplifts and subsidences, Hercynian folding in the Donbass and Cimmerian folding in the Crimea. Sediments accumulated in it, they were taken down from the Ukrainian shield. The slight increase in territory in the Ordovician period was again changed by the advance of the sea. A new ocean was born, and on land within Ukraine in the Devonian period only a crystalline shield remained.

In the Carboniferous period the rift zone of the Dnieper-Donetsk depression has ceased its expansion. The split platform blocks began to move towards each other, which led to uplifts and expansion of land areas. Within the framework of the Dnieper-Donetsk depression, the sea has become shallower. On land during this period, a humid subtropical climate reigned with luxurious and varied vegetation. In river deltas, sea lagoons, a large number of tree trunks and other organic remains accumulated. Actively

the process of accumulation of such material took place in the Donetsk basin and the Galicia-Volyn depression, therefore, deposits of coal were formed here in subsequent eras.

During the Permian period, the southeastern part of the Dnieper-Donetsk depression suffered such a strong compression that the rocks were crumpled into folds. The Donetsk Hercynian fold region was formed.

Mesozoic era marked by a significant advance of the seas. Active tectonic activity was accompanied by volcanism in the Crimea, the Black Sea depression, Donbass. In the Cretaceous, a system of island arcs developed along the southern margins of the East Lithospheric Plate in the Tethys Ocean. At the end of the Mesozoic, the depression of this ocean began to close and the oceanic plate, rustling under the East European platform, forced it to rise. Therefore, if in the middle of the Cretaceous period almost the entire territory of Ukraine was the sea, then at the end of it it became dry.

In the Cenozoic era, intense movements of the earth's crust occurred, which led to the formation of the modern land and mountain systems of the Carpathians and Crimea.

V the earliest period this era (Paleogene) was dominated by subsidence. Most of all, they were in the middle of the period, when only separate parts of the Ukrainian shield and the western part of the Podolsk plate remained islands. A subtropical climate reigned in these areas of land.

At the beginning of the Neogene, active counter movements of lithospheric blocks began, which led to strong mountain-building processes (Alpine era of mountain building), a general uplift of the platform territory. Submersion of the Black Sea plate (part of the Tethys oceanic plate) under Crimean peninsula caused the rise of the Crimean mountains.

The counter movements of solid continental lithospheric blocks (the East European platform and the Panonskoi plate) led to the closure of the oceanic zone within the modern Carpathians. Magma was released through cracks to the surface, causing the emergence of the Volcanic Spine. Since the continental slope of the East European platform was covered with a thick layer of sedimentary rocks, they fell off, forming a kind of Skibovy zone of the Eastern Carpathians. Crawling part of the platform - the Podolsk plate was split off by fault lines, and parts of it underwent significant subsidence, forming the Ciscarpathian foredeep. Gradually, the sea retreated in a southeast direction, the land took on modern contours, and the climate became temperate.

In the anthropogen, under the influence of neotectonic movements and the action of external forces, the modern relief was formed, the river network developed, and continental deposits of various origins accumulated. Continental glaciations played a special role in the relief formation process. The glacier, growing from Scandinavia, entered Ukraine twice: during the most ancient (Oka) glaciation - into the western part of Polesie; during the greatest (Dnieper) - along the Dnieper valley to Dnipropetrovsk.

The rocks remained in the form of moraine banks or hillocks. The melt water washed away the moraines, carrying small particles over a wide area. This is how sandy plains - zandry - were formed.

The continental glaciations obviously caused the formation of loesses, which are widespread throughout almost the entire flat territory of Ukraine. The forest is a loose, yellow, silty rock, easily washed out by water.

The cooling of the climate during the ice ages led to a decrease in the height of the snow line in the mountains. Therefore, mountain glaciers arose on the highest peaks in the Carpathians. At the sites of ancient mountain glaciers, large hollows have formed on the slopes of rounded mountains, which are called kars.

The length of the territory also determined the diversity of the relief: the European part of the country has a completely different appearance than the Asian one, and the differences in regions are great. 70% of Russia is occupied by plains, among which the the East European Plain(within which there are small, up to 250 - 400 m, hills) in the western part of Russia, and the West Siberian Plain - to the east of the Urals. They are divided Ural ridge, most of which are mountains with a height of 800 - 1200 meters. Between the Yenisei and Lena is located Central Siberian plateau dissected by a dense network of river valleys. Mountainous areas with highly rugged relief predominate in the east (Aldan Upland, Verkhoyansk Range, Stanovoe Upland) and in the south of the republic (North Caucasus, Altai, Sayany, etc.), as well as along the Pacific coast.

The relief is directly related to the geological structure of the earth's crust, which is also very heterogeneous. So, the East European Plain approximately corresponds Russian, and the West Siberian - Siberian platform... These are very ancient parts of the crust with a Precambrian folded base, and active mountain-building processes have already completed there.

Between them is a younger Ural-Altai platform, formed in the Paleozoic. Air and water did not manage to destroy the Ural and Altai mountains (formed as a result of the movement of the earth's crust in the Cenozoic era), although they worked on them very thoroughly.

A younger region adjoins the Russian platform from the south North Caucasus, which is characterized by a very significant seismic activity. To the east of the Siberian platform is the Primorsko-Chukotka region, which has a Mesozoic folded base. This is a geologically young region with a predominance of uplands.

The mountainous regions of Kamchatka and the Pacific coast correspond to the belts of the latest folding and volcanism. Geosynclinal development has not yet been completed there, which has determined the seismic and volcanic activity of the region and has left a significant imprint on the entire life of Kamchatka and the Far East. And there is a silver lining: geothermal sources directly related to volcanism represent a solid reserve of cheap energy.

The distribution of underground minerals... So, coal basins mainly correspond to the Carboniferous, Permian, Cretaceous periods. The most important coal basins are

The largest deposits oil and gas associated with Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments in the North Caucasus and Paleozoic sediments in the Volga-Ural and Ukhta-Pechersky oil and gas regions, as well as in the Mesozoic sediments in the territory Eastern Siberia and Yakutia.

Iron ore Precambrian basement corresponds to KMA and ore deposits of Karelia. Large ore reserves have also been found in the Paleozoic of Siberia and the Urals. Deposits are also associated with the Ural Paleozoic. bauxite, copper ore, asbestos, potassium salts, as well as precious and semi-precious stones. Apatity the Kola Peninsula is also rich (Proterozoic), where there are also copper and nickel... In the North Caucasus (Mesozoic) they extract tungsten, molybdenum, lead, zinc... In the Far East (Mesozoic) - lead, zinc, tin... Other minerals are also mined (mainly in the Mesozoic). gold, platinum, silver, mercury.

The economic significance of these resources for Russia can hardly be overestimated: it is their export that keeps the Russian economy afloat, precisely due to the fact that the cost of energy resources in the country is lower than on the world market, the economic decline in Russia in recent years has been less sharp than in other republics the former Soviet Union... However, we must not forget that mineral reserves are by no means unlimited, and many important sources are already close to depletion. Often, mining also negatively affects environment... Thus, being the indisputable economic trump card of Russia, they also carry a number of problems, without the solution of which it is impossible to preserve the most valuable resources for posterity.

CLIMATE AND PRECIPITATION

Located in the north of the mainland, the country includes the Arctic belt, middle latitudes (covering most of Russia), and in the North Caucasus it also covers the subtropical belt. Thus, it is not necessary to speak of the Russian climate as something monolithic: the differences between the regions are very great. But some patterns can be identified, and I would like to dwell on them.

The northwest of the country has a maritime climate, which is caused by the significant influence of the Baltic Sea. Winters are milder here than in other areas at the same latitudes, and summers are relatively cool. However, as you move east, you will notice that the winters are getting colder and the differences between the seasons are more dramatic. The climate changes from moderately continental in the European part of the country (here one cannot fail to note the softening effect of the Atlantic) to sharply continental in Eastern Siberia. In Verkhoyansk, the average January temperature is -50 ° C.

This situation is partly due to the enormous area countries, which made the remoteness of most regions from the oceans and seas inevitable (the Arctic Ocean, located beyond the Arctic Circle, is not able to smooth out temperature fluctuations). Another important factor was relief: for example, the mountains in the south of the country block the way for warm air masses from the Asian part of the mainland, and they practically have no effect on the climate of Russia. The Far East, located at the same latitude as Siberia, has, nevertheless, milder climatic conditions, which is due to the influence of the Okhotsk, Japanese and Bering seas.

The amount of precipitation is directly related to the movement of air masses. It is easy to see that their fallout depends very significantly on the proximity to the sea. So, in the west, their average annual number is 600 - 700 mm, and when moving to the east, it decreases to 100 mm. per year (Yakutia). At the same time, in the Far East and Southeast of Kamchatka, this figure increases by 7-10 times, which is associated with the summer monsoon winds that carry with The Pacific large masses of steam.

The relief also has a significant impact on the distribution of precipitation: mountains (in simple terms) block the path of rain clouds and prevent them from moving further. Therefore, a lot of rain falls in mountainous areas, while areas located behind large ridges lack moisture. In the European part of the country, there are no high mountains, and air masses from the Atlantic do not encounter obstacles in their path.

The influence of air temperature is also very great: for the formation of precipitation, moisture evaporation is necessary, and in warm regions and in the warm season it evaporates much more. That is why the maximum precipitation occurs in the summer months and falls in the form of rain. But, despite this, in Russia almost everywhere (with the exception of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus) snow cover in winter is characteristic (from 60 days in the southwest to 260 in the far north).

As we can see, the climate of Russia in most of it is very harsh, which left its mark on the character of the people (giving the Russian person the ability to live in the most extreme conditions), and on the resettlement of people and their occupations. But at the same time, the opposite process has been noticeable recently: human activity began to influence the atmosphere, and this influence is by no means always beneficial.

Emissions from large factories and exhaust fumes from cars cause excess carbon dioxide, which threatens global warming of the earth. Even more dangerous is the constantly growing concentration of sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, soot and many other harmful substances in the atmosphere. Already in large cities and in important industrial centers, the lack of clean air and an increase in the number of diseases associated with its pollution threaten to turn into one of the most pressing problems. Moreover, in Russia it is sharper than in many other states: the lack of funds does not allow the massive use of modern cleaning products, and the situation is unlikely to radically improve in the near future.

The relief of Russia is characterized by heterogeneity and contrast: high mountain ranges are adjacent to vast plains and lowlands. Almost 2/3 of the country's territory is occupied by endless plains of various shapes and heights. The variety of landscapes in Russia is explained by the large occupied area and the peculiarities of geological development.

Features of the relief of Russia

The relief is a complex of all the irregularities of the earth's surface, which can be both convex and concave. Based on these features, the relief is conventionally divided into two large groups: mountains and plains.

Rice. 1. Relief map of Russia

The relief of the Russian Federation is very diverse. The country is dominated by flat land areas rich in minerals: oil, natural gas, coal, shale, iron ores, gold and many other mineral resources.

The plains alternate with the heights of the mountain ranges. The highest point not only in the country, but throughout Europe is the famous Mount Elbrus (5642 m.), Located in the Caucasus. There are also other five-thousanders: Kazbek, Dykhtau, Shkhara, Pushkin Peak.

The Caucasus Mountains, located between the Caspian and Black Seas, are divided into two mountain systems: the Lesser Caucasus and the Greater Caucasus. All the highest peaks are located in the latter, where glaciers and eternal snow reign at high altitudes.

Fig. 2. Caucasus mountains

The Caspian lowland is located 28 m below sea level. Such fluctuations in altitude - about 5700 m - in the territory of one state are very impressive.

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Position of Russia in relation to large landforms

The variety of landforms and their location is closely related to the geological features of the territory. On the surface of young and ancient platforms of Russia, large plains lie at different heights, occupying the main part of the country's area:

  • East European (also called Russian);
  • West Siberian;
  • Central Siberian plateau.

The central part of Russia is located on the East European Plain, which is considered one of the largest in the world.

The Russian and West Siberian plains are separated by the ridges of the Ural Mountains, the total length of which is more than 2.5 thousand km. In the southeast, the Russian Plain is bounded by the Altai mountain system.

Average altitudes of the Central Siberian Plateau range from 500-700 m above the level of the World Ocean.

In the northeast of the Russian Federation, there is the Pacific folding belt, which includes Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin Island.

All of the above islands are the peaks of ancient sea mountains, the growth of which continues to this day. It is for this reason that frequent and intense earthquakes are characteristic of this region.

In the northwest, the country's territory is located on the Baltic Crystalline Shield. This region is characterized by lacustrine and sea plains, not high mountains and marshy lowlands.

Mountain systems of the Russian Federation

Mountains in Russia occupy almost 1/3 of the entire territory.

  • On the border of the Asian and European parts of the state, the Ural Mountains are located - the oldest and longest. They are not very tall, and are currently badly destroyed. On average, the height of the Ural Mountains does not exceed 400 m, and the highest point is Mount Narodnaya (1895 m).
  • In the south of the Russian Federation, there is a young mountain system called the Greater Caucasus, which serves as a natural border between Georgia and Azerbaijan. Mount Elbrus (5642 m.) - the highest point.
  • Altai Mountains are located in the south of Siberia. They are relatively low, but their growth is still ongoing. The highest point is Mount Belukha (4506 m.).
  • Kamchatka has high mountain ranges with volcanic peaks. It is there that the world's largest active volcano - Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4850 m.) Is located.

Rice. 3. Klyuchevskaya Sopka

What have we learned?

Considering the topic of the relief of the Russian Federation according to the program for grade 8, we learned which forms of relief prevail on the territory of the country, what are its features. The combination of plains and high mountains is one example of a contrasting and heterogeneous relief, which became possible due to the peculiarities of the geological structure and the impressive area of ​​the state territory.

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The relief of Russia is characterized by three main features: - it is diverse, that is, there are both high mountains and vast plains; - 2/3 of the territory is occupied by plains; - mountains are located mainly on the southern and eastern outskirts of the country. These features are explained by the large size of the territory, its varied tectonic structure, and the location of the main tectonic structures. Plains are located on platforms, mountains arose within folded areas.

In the western part of the country is the East European (Russian) Plain, it is located on the ancient Russian platform. The relief of the plain is diverse - it is characterized by alternation of lowlands (Upper Volga, Meshcherskaya) and uplands (Valdai, Central Russian, Smolensk-Moscow). In its southern part there is the Caspian lowland located below sea level. The lowest point in the country (-28 m) is located here. The average height of the Russian Plain is about 200 m. The Ural Mountains are located along its eastern edge. These low (max. Height 1894 m - Mount Narodnaya) mountains stretch from north to south - from the Arctic Ocean to the steppes of Kazakhstan.

To the east of the Urals lies the vast West Siberian Plain. Half of it has a height of less than 100 m and only at the edges of the height of 150-200 m. To the east of it, between the Lena and the Yenisei, lies the Central Siberian plateau, located on the ancient Siberian platform. Its average height is 500-700 m, the maximum is 1701 m.

To the south of the Russian Plain are the highest (Elbrus 5642 m) mountains of Russia - the Caucasus.

In the upper reaches of the Ob and Yenisei, there are the Altai ridges (Mount Belukha, 4506 m) and Sayan (8). From the east, the Sayan Mountains are adjoined by the mountains of the Baikal and Transbaikalia: Stanovoe Upland, Stanovoy Ridge. To the east of the Central Siberian Plateau lie the Verkhoyansk and Chersky ridges. In the Far East, the Sikhote-Alin ridge stretches along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. There are high mountains on the Kamchatka Peninsula (Klyuchevskaya Sopka volcano, 4750 m).

Minerals. Russia possesses large reserves of many minerals; it ranks first in the world in terms of natural gas reserves.

Iron ores are confined to the foundations of ancient platforms. The reserves of the deposits of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) are especially large in the Central Black Earth Region, where high-quality ore is mined in open pits.

The Olenegorskoye and Kovdorskoye fields in the Murmansk region are confined to the Baltic shield. and Kostomukshskoe in Karelia.

The Urals remains one of the important iron ore regions of Russia, although its reserves are already severely depleted.

90% of iron ore reserves are concentrated in the European part of the country, but Siberia and the Far East are also rich in iron ores. In Western Siberia, these are the Gornaya Shoria fields in the Kemerovo region, in Eastern Siberia - the Abakanskoye field in Khakassia and the Rudnogorskoye and Korshunovskoye fields in the Irkutsk region, as well as deposits in the Neryungri region in the south of Yakutia; in the Far East - deposits in the Zeya river basin.

Deposits of copper ores are concentrated mainly in the Urals (Krasnoturinskoe, Krasnouralskoe, Gayskoe, etc.) and on the Kola Peninsula (Monchegorskoe deposit of copper-nickel ores in the Murmansk region), as well as in the mountains of Southern Siberia (Udokan) in the north of Eastern Siberia - Talnakhskoe deposit near Norilsk.

The largest deposits of aluminum ores (bauxites) are located in the Urals, in the North-West region - Tikhvinskoe (bauxites) and Khibinskoe (nephelines); in Eastern Siberia - in the south of the Irkutsk Region and Krasnoyarsk Territory.

The largest oil and gas province of Russia - West Siberian - is located on the territory of the West Siberian region. Volgo-Uralskaya - within the Volga and Uralskiy regions. Timan-Pecherskaya occupies the eastern part of the Northern Region and the water area of ​​the Barents and Kara Seas. Significant gas reserves are located in the Astrakhan region, oil - in the North Caucasus.

Of the total geological reserves of coal in the country, 95% are in the eastern regions, including 60% in Siberia. The bulk of the reserves is concentrated in several of the largest basins: Tunguska (2299 billion tons), Lenskoye (1647 billion tons), Kansko-Achinsky (638 billion tons) and Kuznetsk (2299 billion tons). The Pechora Basin - the largest in terms of reserves in the European part - accounts for only 3.5% of the reserves.

CLIMATE

The territory of Russia is characterized by a wide variety of climates: in the south of the Caspian lowland in summer it can be up to + 40 ° С, and on the coast of the Arctic Ocean it is only slightly warmer than zero degrees. The average January temperature in Sochi is about 0 ° С, and in the Oymyakon region, frosts reach -71 ° С. Up to 3000 mm of precipitation falls on the Black Sea coast of the North Caucasus. And in the Astrakhan region - less than 200 mm. This diversity is explained by the great length of the country from north to south, varied topography, and different distances from the oceans.

The Arctic islands of the Arctic Ocean have an arctic climate. It is characterized by low temperatures throughout the year. Winter temperatures are from –24 ° С to –30 ° С. Summer temperatures are close to zero, while at the southern borders of the belt they rise to + 5 ° С. Little precipitation falls (200-300 mm). They fall mainly in the form of snow, which lasts most of the year.

On the northern coast of the country there is a cold subarctic climate. Winters are long here, their severity increases from west to east. Summers are cold (from +4 ° С in the north to +14 ° С in the south). Precipitation occurs frequently, but in small amounts. Their maximum is in the summer. The annual amount of precipitation is 200-400 mm, but at low temperatures and low evaporation, excessive moisture is created on the surface and waterlogging occurs.

In the south, in the Sochi region, it is subtropical, but most of the country is dominated by temperate climates. There are four subtypes of climates in the temperate zone.

The temperate continental climate of the temperate zone is formed in the European part of the country under the influence of the air from the Atlantic. Due to its supply, the European part is better humidified than the eastern regions. Winter is less severe here. January temperatures range from –4 ° С to –20 ° С. Summers are warm (from +12 ° С to +24 ° С). The largest amount of precipitation falls in the western regions (800 mm), but due to frequent thaws, the thickness of the snow cover is not great here. In the area of ​​dominance of the temperate continental climate, a change in moisture is observed from excessive to insufficient, which causes a change in natural zones from taiga to steppe.

The continental climate of the temperate zone is common in Western Siberia. Here, the annual amount of precipitation in the north does not reach 600 mm, and in the south - 100 mm. Winters are harsher than in the west. Summers are sultry in the south and warm enough in the north.

The sharply continental climate of the temperate zone is distinguished by extremely low winter temperatures (from –24 ° С to –40 ° С) and significant warming up in summer (up to +16, +20 ° С). It is common in Eastern Siberia. Annual precipitation is less than 400 mm here. The moisture coefficient is close to unity.

The monsoon climate of the temperate zone is characteristic of the Far East. Winter is cold, sunny and with little snow, like in Siberia. The summer is cloudy and cool, with large quantity precipitation (up to 600-800 mm), falling in the form of showers. This type of summer weather is associated with the influx of sea air from the Pacific Ocean.

Thus, within the temperate zone, summer throughout the country becomes warmer as it moves to the south, but in winter frosts intensify as it moves from the western borders of the country (–8 ° С) to the east to –50 ° С in Yakutia. This is because the further east you go, the less heat comes from the Atlantic Ocean. And only farther east, as we approach the Pacific Ocean, winter again becomes somewhat warmer.

Agroclimatic resources are the properties of the climate that provide agricultural production opportunities. They are characterized by the duration of the period with an average daily temperature above +10 ° С; the sum of temperatures for this period; the ratio of heat and moisture (moisture coefficient); moisture reserves created by the snow cover in winter.

Different parts of the country have different agro-climatic resources. In the Far North, where moisture is excessive and there is little heat, only focal farming and greenhouse-greenhouse farming are possible. Within the taiga north of the Russian Plain and most of the Siberian and Far Eastern taiga, it is warmer - the sum of active temperatures is 1000-1600 °, rye, barley, flax, vegetables can be grown here. In the zone of steppes and forest-steppes - Central Russia, in the south of Western Siberia and the Far East, moisture is sufficient, and the sum of temperatures is from 1600 to 2200 °, here you can grow rye, wheat, oats, buckwheat, various vegetables, sugar beets, fodder crops for the needs of animal husbandry ...

The most favorable are the agroclimatic resources of the steppe regions of the southeast of the Russian Plain, the south of Western Siberia and the Ciscaucasia. Here the sum of active temperatures is 220-3400 ° and it is possible to grow winter wheat, corn, rice, sugar beets, sunflowers, heat-loving vegetables and fruits.

INLAND WATERS

Inland waters - rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers, The groundwater; artificial reservoirs - reservoirs, canals, etc.

The importance of inland waters is very important for human life and activities and for nature. The internal waters of Russia are rich and varied.

Rivers of Russia belong to the basins of the oceans: the Arctic, Pacific, Atlantic and to the basin of internal flow (basin is the territory from which the river and its tributaries collect water). The nutrition and regime of rivers are related to the climate.

The rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin are the longest and deepest. The longest river is the Lena, the deepest is the Yenisei, the Ob has the largest catchment area. The rivers are fed mixed with the advantage of snow. Spring high water. The rivers are freezing. The largest rivers of Siberia begin in the mountains (Altai, Sayan, the Baikal region) - there they have a mountainous character. The rivers of the East European Plain of the Arctic Ocean basin are flat throughout their entire length.

Rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin: the main one is the Amur with tributaries (Zeya, Bureya, Ussuri). The food is mainly rain-fed, summer floods are typical, catastrophic floods are caused by monsoon rains.

Rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin: Neva, Western Dvina flow into the Baltic Sea; Dnieper, Don, Kuban - to Black and Azov. The food is mainly snow. Small spring flood. The Neva periodically floods St. Petersburg due to surges from the Baltic Sea.

The rivers of the internal drainage basin are the Volga (the largest - its basin occupies 30% of the East European Plain), Ural, Emba, Terek. The food is mainly snow. The Volga forms a vast delta. It is connected by canals with the Moskva River (Moscow Canal), with the Don (Volgo-Don).

Lakes. The Caspian Sea-Lake, Baikal is the deepest lake in the world, because it is located in a tectonic basin. The lakes are unevenly distributed. There are many in the northwest of the European part - Ladoga, Onega (glacial-tectonic basins); Seliger, Valdai (hollows between moraine hills). There are lakes of volcanic origin in Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

Glaciers. On the territory of Russia, the bulk of glaciers are concentrated on the Arctic islands and in mountainous regions. The largest areas of mountain glaciation are typical for the Caucasus (over 1400 glaciers). There are also small glaciers in the mountains of Altai, Kamchatka, north and northeastern Siberia. Covering glaciers are common on the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and other Arctic islands.

Groundwater - significant reserves: West Siberian artesian basin, Moscow. Kamchatka - thermal waters.

Swamps - common on flat plains with sufficient moisture - Western Siberia, North of the European part, Meshchera.

Water resources - waters of rivers, lakes and groundwater - serve as the main source of water supply for the country. Water is needed by public utilities, and industrial enterprises, and agriculture for irrigation. In general, the country is well provided with them, but they are unevenly distributed over its territory: the northern regions, Siberia (80% fresh water concentrated in Lake Baikal), but all the most developed parts of the country experience a lack of water, especially in the southern half of the European part of the country.

The main problem of water supply is the lack of clean water, pollution of the waters of rivers and lakes with domestic and industrial wastewater, wastewater from livestock breeding complexes. It is necessary to introduce more widely systems of circulating water supply, wastewater treatment and their use.

The rivers of Russia have large hydropower resources, they are mainly concentrated in the Siberian rivers Yenisei, Angara, it is there that the largest hydroelectric power plants are built. The construction of a hydroelectric power station is not only beneficial, but also has negative consequences: flooding of lands, changes in the level of groundwater, microclimate, deterioration of conditions for the reproduction of many valuable species of fish.

Natural areas.
Forest and soil-land resources

The natural change in natural components when moving from the equator to the poles, associated with a decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight, is called natural zoning.

The position of Russia in the northern part of Eurasia determined the location on its territory of the following natural zones, replacing each other when moving from north to south: arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, forest (includes subzones of taiga, mixed and deciduous forests), forest-steppe, steppe, semi-desert, subtropical zone.

Altitudinal zonation - the change of natural complexes with altitude in the mountains is due to climate change with altitude. The set of altitude zones in the mountains depends on the geographical position of the mountains themselves, which determines the nature of the lower belt, and the height of the mountains, which determines the nature of the upper tier. The sequence of altitudinal belts coincides with the sequence of changes in natural complexes on the plains. But in the mountains, the belts change faster, there are belts that are characteristic only of mountains. These are belts of subalpine and alpine meadows.

Forest resources are one of the most important types of biological resources. Forest resources are renewable.

Russia is rich in forest resources (45% of the country's territory is covered with forests), has the largest timber reserves in the world (more than 20% of world reserves). The forest belt stretches throughout the country from west to east. Forests are diverse in species composition (1500 species of trees and shrubs). The species composition of forests changes due to climate change. Forests of coniferous trees (larch, pine, spruce, cedar pine) prevail, their timber is a valuable industrial resource. Spruce wood is used to make paper. The wood of deciduous trees is used for the production of furniture, parquet.

Forests are unevenly distributed throughout the country. Most of the forest resources are concentrated in the regions of the North, Siberia and the Far East, which are poorly populated.

Currently, logging areas in the Asian part of the country are concentrated in a narrow strip in the south. In the future, the logging zone should expand and move to the north. Currently, large timber processing complexes operate in Arkhangelsk, Syktyvkar, Yeniseisk, Ust-Ilimsk, Krasnoyarsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur.

For the rational use of forest resources, it is necessary to comprehensively process raw materials, not to cut down forests in an amount exceeding their growth, and carry out reforestation work.

The main types of soils. Soil is a special natural formation; the surface layer of the earth with fertility. The founder of soil science, the outstanding Russian scientist V.V.Dokuchaev, established that the main types of soils on the globe are located zonally. Soil types are distinguished depending on their fertility, structure, texture, etc.

Tundra-gley soils are common in the north of the country. They are thin, have a low humus content, and are waterlogged.

Podzolic soils are formed under coniferous forests in areas of excessive moisture, and sod-podzolic soils under mixed forests. Sediments wash out the soil and carry nutrients from the upper layer to the lower ones. The upper part of the soil becomes ash-colored. These soils are poor in humus and mineral elements. They occupy more than half of the country's territory. The fertility of podzolic soils increases to the south.

Sufficiently fertile gray forest soils are formed under deciduous forests (more plant litter, less intensive leaching).

To the south, in the zone of forest-steppe and steppes, chernozems are formed - the most fertile soils. A lot of humus accumulates from the remains of vegetation; there is practically no leaching regime. The humus content in chernozem can reach 6-10% or more. The thickness of the humus horizon can reach 60-100 cm. They have a granular structure. Less than 10% of the territory is occupied by chernozems.

In the southern part of the steppes with a drier climate, chestnut soils are formed. The humus content in them is less than in chernozems, since plant litter is less here.

In desert areas with poor vegetation, brown soils of semi-deserts and gray soils are formed. These soils contain little humus and are often saline.

The variety of soil types and the peculiarities of their distribution are reflected on soil maps.

Land resources are a part of the Earth's surface on which various objects of the economy and settlements can be located. Land resources are assessed by two indicators: per capita land availability and land quality.

Russia is one of the countries most endowed with land resources, but at the same time it has a small amount of land favorable for human life and economic activity. Large areas of Russia are occupied by tundra, taiga, mountain ranges, swamps and wetlands. Only 13% of the country's area is agricultural land, that is, land used in agriculture (arable land, orchards, hayfields, pastures), and the share of the most valuable land, arable land, is only 8%.

Most of the agricultural land is located in the south of the country. The most fertile lands are used for arable land - black soil, gray forest and dark chestnut. The main agricultural zone of the country is in the zone of mixed forests, forest-steppes and steppes.

There is a decrease in the amount of arable land due to the use of agricultural land for the construction of reservoirs, industrial enterprises, roads, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to rationally use the land and increase their fertility.

The soil is subject to erosion under the influence of rain and melt water, wind. Improper plowing of the land and excessive grazing of livestock also contribute to the development of soil erosion.

Work to improve land in order to increase their fertility is called land reclamation. The main types of reclamation are: agromelioration (plowing and sowing across the slope; deep plowing to increase water absorption), forest reclamation (creating forest shelter belts, planting forests on the slopes of ravines and ravines), water (draining swampy lands and irrigating dry lands), chemical and cultural-technical.

Land reclamation and reclamation are the main measures for the protection and rational use of soil and land resources.

Examples of USE Tasks with Comments

1. Where are active volcanoes in Russia?

1) in Western Siberia 3) in Altai

2) in Kamchatka 4) in the Urals

The answer is 2.

2. Where in Russia are large diamond deposits being developed?

1) Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) 3) Lipetsk region

2) Republic of Kalmykia 4) Kurgan region

The answer is 1.

3. Which of the following lakes is located in the European part of Russia?

1) Ladoga 3) Teletskoe

2) Khanka 4) Kronotskoe

The answer is 1.

4. Which river is a tributary of the Volga?

1) Irtysh 3) Yana

2) Pechora 4) Kama

The answer is 4.

5. The climate of which of the listed territories is formed under the influence of monsoons?

1) Primorye 3) Caucasus

2) Kola Peninsula 4) Chukotka

The answer is 1.

6. In which of the points marked with letters on the map of Russia are the coldest winters?

1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D

For the correct answer to questions of this type, one should be able to apply knowledge about the laws of climate change on the territory of Russia and climate-forming factors to compare the average winter air temperatures at different points. It is known that in winter a powerful anticyclone forms over the territory of Eastern Siberia, which determines very low air temperatures. Point D is marked on the territory of Eastern Siberia near the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere. This means that it is there that it is coldest in winter.

The answer is 4.

7. From which natural zone will the traveler move when flying from point A to point B?

1) from the tundra zone to the mixed forest zone

2) from the taiga zone to the steppe zone

3) from the zone of arctic deserts to the taiga zone

4) from the mixed forest zone to the desert zone

To answer questions of this type, one should have an idea of ​​how roughly the natural zones are located on the territory of Russia. In the north of the European part of the tundra occupies only narrow sections of the coast, and to the south, taiga is widespread. Point A is marked at a considerable distance from the coast, approximately in Karelia. This means that it is located in the taiga zone.

In the south of the European part of Russia there are steppes (semi-deserts are common on a narrow stretch of the Caspian Sea coast).

The answer is 2.

Self-Test Tasks
Part A

1. In winter, anticyclones have a predominant effect on the climate

1) the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus

2) Central Siberian plateau

3) Rostov region

4) Kaliningrad region

2. The sharply continental type of climate of the temperate climatic zone is characteristic of

1) Eastern Siberia 3) Karelia

2) Primorye 4) Volga region

3. In which of the following regions are podzolic soils most widespread?

1) Karelia 3) Orenburg region

2) Rostov region 4) Kalmykia

4. For which of the territories marked with letters on the map of Russia are earthquakes typical?

1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D

5. In which of the listed regions of Russia is the summer usually the hottest and driest?

1) Kaliningrad region

2) Bryansk region

3) Astrakhan region

4) Sakhalin region

2 1

The geological structure of the planet is directly related to the formation of the earth's crust. The geology of the planet began with the formation of the crust. Scientists, having analyzed ancient rocks, came to the conclusion that the age of the Earth's lithosphere is 3.5 billion years. Key types of tectonic structures on land are geosynclines and platforms. They are very different from each other.

Platforms are large and stable sections of the earth's crust that are made up of crystalline basement and relatively young rocks.

In most cases, there are no rock formations or active volcanoes on the platforms. Earthquakes are not often seen here, and vertical movements cannot reach high speeds. The crystalline base of the Russian Platform was formed in the Proterozoic and Archean eras, that is, two billion years ago. During this era, the planet underwent serious transformations, and the mountains became their logical outcome.

Crystalline schists, quartzites, gneisses and other ancient rocks have turned them into folds. In the Paleozoic era, the mountains became smoother, their surfaces slowly fluctuated.

When the surface was below the boundary of the ancient ocean, the process of marine transgression and the accumulation of marine sediments began. Sedimentary rocks such as clay, salt, limestone accumulated intensively. When the land was freed from water, red-colored sands accumulated. If sedimentary material accumulated in shallow lagoons, brown coal and salt were also concentrated here.

In the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, crystalline rocks were overlapped by a thick sedimentary cover. For a detailed analysis of these rocks, it is necessary to drill wells to extract the core. Experts can conduct a thorough study of the geological structure by studying natural outcrops of rocks.

Aerospace and geophysical research methods are actively used by modern science along with classical geological research. The rise and fall of the Russian territory, the creation of continental conditions were provoked by tectonic movements, the nature of which has not yet been explained. But the connection of tectonic processes with those that occur in the bowels of the planet is beyond doubt.

Geology distinguishes several types of tectonic processes:

  • The ancients. The movements of the Earth's crust during the Paleozoic.
  • New. Movement of the Earth's crust during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
  • Newest. The movements of the earth's crust over the past several million years.

The newest tectonic processes have played a key role in the formation of the modern relief.

Features of the relief in Russia

The relief is a collection of all the irregularities that are on the surface of the earth. This should also include seas and oceans.

The relief plays an important role in the formation of climatic conditions, the distribution of certain groups of animals and plants, and strongly influences the economic activities of people. According to geographers, the relief is the frame of nature. The relief on the territory of Russia surprises with the variety and complexity of its structure. Endless plains here are replaced by mountain chains, intermontane basins and volcanic cones.

Images from space and a physical map of the country make it possible to determine some patterns of the orographic pattern of the territory of the state. Orography - mutual arrangement relief in relation to each other.

Features of the orography of Russia:

  • The territory is 60 percent plains.
  • The west and center of the country are lower than the rest. The border between the parts runs along the Yenisei.
  • Mountains are located on the outskirts of the country.
  • The territory leans towards the Arctic Ocean. This is evidenced by the course of the Northern Dvina, Ob, Yenisei and other large rivers.

On Russian territory there are plains that are considered the largest on the planet - Russian and West Siberian.

The Russian plain is distinguished by hilly relief, alternating uplands and low-lying areas. The north-east of the plain is higher than the rest of its parts. The plain rises above the ocean level in this part by more than 400 meters. The Caspian lowland is located in the south of the plain. It is the lowest part of the plain, rising only 28 meters above sea level. The average height is 170 meters.

The relief of the West Siberian Plain is not impressive with its diversity. The main part of the lowland is located 100 meters below the World Ocean. The average height of the plain is 120 meters. The highest altitudes are observed in the northwestern part of the plain. Here is the North-Sovin Upland, thanks to which the plain rises 200 meters above the ocean.

The Ural ridge serves as a watershed between these plains. The ridge is not distinguished by its great height and width. Its width is no more than 150 kilometers. The Peak of the Urals is considered to be the People's Mountain - its height is 1895 kilometers. The total length of the Ural Mountains in the southern direction is about 2 thousand kilometers.

The Central Siberian Plateau ranks third in area among the plains in Russia. The object is located between the Yenisei and Lena. The average height of the plateau is 480 meters above the ocean. The highest point of the plain is in the Putorana plateau zone. It is located 1700 meters above the ocean.

The plateau in the eastern part smoothly passes into the Central Yakut lowland, and in the north - into the North Siberian plain. The outskirts of the country in the South-East are mountainous regions.

The highest mountains of the country are located between the Caspian and Black Seas, southwest of the Russian Plain. The highest point in the entire country is also located here. This is Mount Elbrus. Its height reaches 5642 meters.

On the southern outskirts of the country, the Sayan Mountains and the Altai Mountains run eastward. The top of the Sayan Mountains is Munku-Sardyk, and the Altai Mountains are Belukha. These mountains smoothly turn into the Cis-Baikal and Trans-Baikal ridges.

The Stanovoy ridge connects them with the north-eastern and eastern ridges. Ridges of small and medium height are found here - Suntar-Khayata, Verkhoyansk, Chersky, Dzhugdzhur. In addition to them, there are highlands - Kolymskoe, Koryak, Yano-Oymyakonskoe, Chukotskoe. In the southern part of the Far East, they are connected with the Amur and coastal ridges of average height. For example, this is Sikhote-Alin.

In the Far East of Russia, you can see the Kuril and Kamchatka mountains. All active volcanoes of Russia are concentrated in these places. The highest of the currently active volcanoes is Klyuchevskaya Sopka. One tenth of the entire territory of Russia is occupied by mountains.

Russian minerals

Russia is the world leader in mineral reserves among all states of the planet. To date, 200 deposits have been discovered. The total cost of the deposits is about $ 300 trillion.

Russian minerals in relation to the world reserves:

  • oil - 12 percent;
  • natural gas - 30 percent;
  • coal - 30 percent;
  • potassium salts - 31 percent;
  • cobalt - 21 percent;
  • iron ores - 25 percent;
  • nickel - 15 percent.

In the bowels Russian land there are ore, non-metallic and combustible minerals.

The group of fossil fuels includes coal, oil, natural gas, oil shale and peat. The largest deposits are in Siberia, the Volga region, the Baltic region, the Caucasus, on the Yamal peninsula.

The group of ore minerals includes iron, manganese, aluminum ores, as well as non-ferrous metal ores. The largest deposits are located in Siberia, Gornaya Shoria, the Kola Peninsula, the Far East, Taimyr and the Urals.

Russia ranks second in the world in diamond mining after South Africa. A variety of precious stones, minerals, building minerals are mined in large quantities on the territory of the Russian Federation.