Tongue Twisters

Russian provinces until 1917. Administrative-territorial division of the Russian empire. Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

At the beginning of the XIX century. there was an official consolidation of the borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe. The Petersburg conventions of 1824 defined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54 ° 40 "N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border between the Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54 ° N to 60 ° N at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean. , taking into account all the bends of the coast, the Russian-Norwegian border was established by the St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826.

Academic expeditions of V.M.Severgin and A.I.Sherer in 1802-1804 to the north-west of Russia, to Belarus, the Baltic states, and were devoted mainly to mineralogical surveys.

The period of geographical discoveries in the inhabited European part of Russia is over. In the XIX century. expeditionary research and their scientific generalization were mainly thematic. Of these, one can name the regionalization (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E.F.Kankrin in 1834; the botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by KM Baer; N.A.'s work (1855) on the animal world of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the animal world and physical and geographical conditions, and also established the patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil research of V.V. in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V.Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department for a comprehensive study of the nature of the steppes and finding ways to combat. In this expedition, the stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia made it necessary to explore new Russian lands, the study of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. Kh. Lenz explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus, determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks in the Caucasus. In 1844-1865. the natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Bolshoi and Dagestan, the Colchis lowland, and compiled the first general orographic scheme of the Caucasus.

Ural

Among the works that developed the geographical concept of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, EK Hoffman, GP Gelmersen; the publication of "Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" by E. A. Eversman (1840), which gives a comprehensive characterization of the nature of this territory with a well-grounded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Hoffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for compiling a map of the explored part of the Urals ... A notable event was the trip in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and to the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the XIX century. continued exploration of Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai, in the 1st half of the century, the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P.A.Chikhachev carried out physical-geographical and geological research.

In 1843-1844. A. F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world Eastern Siberia and the Far East, for the first time information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, Stanovoy ridge. Based on the travel materials, A.F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published "A Journey to the North and East of Siberia" - one of the best examples of systematic summaries of the nature of the investigated territories. This work gives a characteristic of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the originality of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. RK Maak and AK Zondhagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakutsk Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of the south of Eastern Siberia. In 1858, L. E. Schwartz conducted geographical research in the Sayan Mountains. During them the topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P.A.Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and. He investigated the rivers Oka, Amur, Ussuri, ridges, discovered the Patomskoe Upland. The Khamar-Daban ridge, coasts, Priangare, Selenga basin, were explored by A.L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I.D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky studied the basins of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Olenek rivers, and I. D. Chersky - the upper reaches of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska. Geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, Ya. P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910 he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892. during his last expedition, ID Chersky explored the Nerskoe plateau, discovered three high mountain ranges Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistay and Tomushai beyond the Verkhoyansk ridge.

Far East

Exploration of Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and adjacent seas continued. In 1805, I.F.Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811 V.M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849 G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur estuary for large ships. In the years 1850-1853. GI Nevelskoy and others continued research of Sakhalin, adjacent parts of the continent. In the years 1860-1867. Sakhalin was investigated by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.V. Shebunin. In the years 1852-1853. N.K Boshnyak investigated and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, Bureinsky ridge, Khadzhi bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. AF Middendorf and VV Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. XIX century. investigated the coastal parts of Primorye: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posiet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin made a survey of the northern coast of the Sea of Japan and the Gulf of Peter the Great. The Lower Amur and the northern part of the Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budischev. In 1858 M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were investigated by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869. made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the basins of the Ussuri and Suchan rivers, crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts of Central Asia and the Russian Empire were annexed, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists studied and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. organic world Mugodzhar, General Syrta and the Ustyurt plateau were explored by E.A. Eversman. In 1825-1836. carried out a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau GS Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I.Shrenk studied East Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845. the Balkhash-Alakol depression was discovered (A.I.Shrenk, T.F.Nifant'ev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of the lakes, Zaisan. In 1848-1849. AI Butakov carried out the first survey, discovered a number of islands, the Chernyshev Bay.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the expedition of 1857 I. G. Borshchov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba river basin and the Bolshie Barsuki sands. In 1865 I. G. Borshchov continued his research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographic complexes and analyzed the interrelationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.

Since the 1840s. exploration of the high mountains of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857. P.P.Semenov initiated the scientific research of the Tien Shan. Research in the mountains of Central Asia flourished during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P.P. Semyonov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In the years 1860-1867. N. A. Severtsov explored the Kyrgyz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskemsky and Kakshaal-Toon ranges, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alay and Zaalaysky ridges. N. A. Severtsov, A. I. Skassi discovered the Rushan Range and the Fedchenko Glacier (1877-1879). The studies carried out made it possible to distinguish the Pamirs into a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V.A.Obruchev in 1886-1888 (Karakum desert and ancient Uzboy valley).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902 conducted.

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the XIX century. the opening of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806 Ya. Sannikov carried out inventories of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered the island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811. the expedition of M. M. Gedenshtrom visited. In 1815 M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In the years 1821-1823. P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental studies, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the Novosibirsk Islands, explored and described the Semyonovsky, Vasilievsky, Stolbovoy islands, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenek rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In the years 1820-1824. F.P. Wrangel under very difficult natural conditions traveled across the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukotka Peninsula), predicted existence.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotsebue discovered in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska a large bay named after him. In 1818-1819. the eastern coast of the Bering Sea was investigated by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Yukon delta of Alaska was discovered. In 1835-1838. the lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L.A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835. the coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F.Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim ridge (Kuskokwim). In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. FP Litke in the Novaya Zemlya brig investigated, described and made a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to make an inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833. P.K.Pakhtusov made the first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya. In 1834-1835. P.K.Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A. K. Tsivol'ka and S. A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the Northern Island up to 74.5 ° N. sh., the Strait of Matochkin Shar is described in detail, the island of Pakhtusov is discovered. The description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V.A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829 managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from the Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The studies carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K.M.Ber, 1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a large expedition in 1837, A.I.Shrenk explored the Chesh Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, an island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Exploration of this area in 1840-1845. continued by A.A.Keyserling, who surveyed the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American explorer R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and for the first time explored the inner regions of the island.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker "", under the command of S.O. Makarov, visited. In 1913-1914. a Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov spent the winter on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants in the troublesome expedition of G. L. Brusilov on the ship “St. Anna ”, headed by navigator V. I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all the energy was directed to the preservation of life, V.I.

In 1878-1879. In two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. for the first time passed the Northern Sea Route from the west to the east on the small sailing-steam ship "Vega". This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Severny Hydrographic Expedition under the leadership of B.A. Emperor Nicholas II (now - Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845 (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO), has contributed greatly to the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. De Long discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett to the north-east of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886. the study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the Novosibirsk Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852 it published its first twenty-five verst (1: 1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, based on the materials of the Ural expedition of the Russian Geographical Society in 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge was also depicted with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river regions of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei, and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, M.V. Pevtsov, G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V.I. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and photographed (of which more than 30,000 km were accounted for by N.M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined, and the heights of 3533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as the lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this greatly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activity of the IRGO falls on 1873-1914, when the Grand Duke Constantine was at the head of the society, and P.P.Semenov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in certain areas - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

The IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's relief. To process the levelings and make a hypsometric map, a hypsometric commission of the IRGO was created. In 1874, the IRGO under the leadership of A.A. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A.A. Tillo to compile a “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts in an inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50,000 elevations were used for its compilation obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized the understanding of the structure of the relief of this territory. On it, the orography of the European part of the country was presented in a new way, which has not changed in its main features to the present time, for the first time the Central Russian and Volga Uplands were depicted. In 1894, the Forestry Department under the leadership of A.A.Tillo with the participation of S.N. organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The military topographic service, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, carried out a large number of pioneer reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps of many territories were compiled, which were previously “white spots” on the map.

Territory mapping in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty's Own Map Depot” issued the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map of scale 1: 840,000, which covered almost all of European Russia and was named “Stolistnaya Map”. Its content was based mainly on the materials of the General Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff under the leadership of Major General F.F. (1743) to the world. Survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were merged. Wherein Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for the training of professional topographers - military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappaniem topographic corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with officers-topographers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

In 1819, topographic surveys on a scale of 1: 21,000 began in Russia, based on triangulation and carried out mainly with the help of a scaler. In 1844, they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1: 42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Staff of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping has become one of the main tasks of military topographers. FF Schubert, a remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer, was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In the years 1816-1852. in Russia, the largest triangulation work for that time was carried out, stretching 25 ° 20 "along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the leadership of F.F.Schubert and K.I.Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on the materials of these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century. Semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

The military topographic depot began in 1821 to draw up a survey and topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1: 420,000), which is extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten verst of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on the creation of the map continued with interruptions until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829. detailed maps of 1: 210,000 scale were compiled of the Baku province, Talish Khanate, Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. the survey was carried out and Wallachia, which became a model of the work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into an atlas of 1:16 000. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. versts

Since the 30s. geodetic and boundary works began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for the creation of accurate topographic maps of the Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in the Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and in other regions.

In 1833, the head of the KBT, General FF Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition to the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points associated with them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 Under the guidance and funds of the IRGO, the Military Topographic Depot compiled and published on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasian Territory on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the initial meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the "Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their Environs" compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, at the suggestion of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of General II Stebnitsky conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic institution of A.A. Ilyin opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

Relief maps took a special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO. The large relief map was completed in 1868 and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances at a scale of 1: 420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84 000.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I.I.

Work was also carried out on topogeodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in the Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at that time. This, in particular, is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V.P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographic service has been the creation of a military topographic map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of the military topographic map had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.

In 1848-1866. Under the leadership of Lieutenant General A. I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps and atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of about 345,000 square meters. versts Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42 000), Yaroslavskaya - two versts per inch (1:84 000), Simbirskaya and Nizhegorodskaya - three versts per inch (1: 126 000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1: 336,000). Based on the survey results, the IRGO published multicolored topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84 000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1: 336 000).

Filming Mende had an undoubted impact on the further improvement of the methodology of state mapping. In 1872, the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map at a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84 000), which was the most detailed source of information about the area used in troops and the national economy up to the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow, etc. It was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as horizontal lines.

In 1869-1885. a detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one verst in an inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. The one-verst maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus, and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. XIX century. The Special Map of European Russia by FF Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is strongly outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed Captain of the General Staff I.A. works. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten versts were reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments traveled more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and eye surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic works in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the ITC, General ND Artamonov. It was decided to develop a new triangulation of the 1st class according to a specific program proposed by General II Pomerantsev. The KVT started implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work had been completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in Poland completely, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in Petrograd and Vyborg provinces in part; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in the Transcaucasus, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, to the east of the survey sites on a half- and verst scale.

The results of topographic surveys of the previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21 000); milestone map of the Western border area, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42 000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84 000), three-verst map (1: 126 000) with relief, expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1: 420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1: 1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map (1: 1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign states.

In addition to the above maps, the Military Topographic Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of the entire Asian Russia.

During the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers carried out an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: geodetic points were identified - 63 736; astronomical points (in latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of 7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out on an area of 506,247 km2. In 1917, the supply of the Russian army was 6739 nomenclatures of maps of various scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge field survey material was obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works were created, however, the coverage of the topographic survey of the territory of Russia was uneven, a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.

Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

The achievements of Russia in the study of the World Ocean were also significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting with the maiden voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic study of the World Ocean.

In addition to hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian navy, participants of round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F.P. Wrangel, A.K. Etolin and M.D. Tebenkov, continuously replenished knowledge about the North Pacific Ocean and improved navigational charts these areas. Especially great was the contribution of M. D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed Atlas of the Northwestern shores of America from to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the North-Eastern coast of Asia, published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the final formulation of the geographical concepts of the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 1920s and 1930s. XIX century. expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K.Pakhtusov, K.M.Ber and A.K. To solve the problem of the development of transport links of European Pomorie, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I.N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I.N. Ivanov and I.A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps compiled by them had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Exploration of sea coasts and islands in the north of Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as by the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During an expedition led by M.M.Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole was created for the first time, as well as the continental sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s. Yanskaya (1820-1824) under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and Kolymskaya (1821-1824) - under the leadership of F.P. These expeditions carried out on an expanded scale the program of work of the expedition of M. M. Gedenshtrom. They were supposed to take pictures of the banks from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenek River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Medvezhy Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map, according to the data of local residents, an island with the inscription “Mountains are seen from Cape Yakan in summer” was marked. This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I.F.Kruzenshtern (1826) and G.A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867 it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and named after Wrangel to commemorate the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer. The results of the expeditions of PF Anjou and FP Wrangel were summarized in 26 manuscript maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

Not only scientific, but also of tremendous geopolitical significance for Russia were held in the middle of the 19th century. GI Nevelskoy and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the insular position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, however, the problem of the accessibility of the Amur estuary for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively solved only by G.I. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities to the Amur and Primorye regions, showing the enormous potential of these richest regions, provided, as the studies of G.I. Pacific Ocean... These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelskoy paved the way for the return of the Amur Region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and annexation to the Primorye Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research on the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in the borders in the Far East in accordance with the agreements between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on the maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published in the shortest possible time.

Russian hydrographers in the 19th century continued active work on the European seas. After the annexation of the Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian Navy on the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigation atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings on the northern coast, in 1807 - IM Budishchev's atlas on the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov seas”. In 1825-1836. under the leadership of EP Manganari, on the basis of triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish in 1841 the Atlas of the Black Sea.

In the XIX century. continued intensive study of the Caspian Sea. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work in 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Collegiums under the leadership of AE Kolodkin, the "Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea" was published, which fully satisfied the requirements of the shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the maps of the atlas were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the western coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836), etc. - on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1847 I. I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsov, who for 15 years carried out a systematic survey and description, drawing up several plans and 26 maps, covering almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the XIX century. intensive work continued to improve the maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the "Atlas of the entire Baltic Sea ..." (1812) compiled by GA Sarychev. In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of FF Schubert, maps of the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea were compiled and published.

Significant changes in the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F.P. Litke (1821-1824) and M.F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the Reinecke expedition in 1833, the Atlas of the White Sea ... was published, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia, which supplemented this atlas, can be regarded as an example of the geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to MF Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

The active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) cartography. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Main Directorate of Railways published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It includes general maps on scales of 20 and 10 versts in inches, detailed maps on a scale of 2 versts in inches and plans on a scale of 100 fathoms in inches and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to an increase in the cartographic study of territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic work in the 19th and early 20th centuries. was carried out by the Ministry of State Property, formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of domestic cartography was the "Great World Table Atlas of Marx", published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.

Nature mapping

Geological mapping

In the XIX century. Intensive cartographic study of the mineral resources of Russia and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) cartography is being developed. At the beginning of the XIX century. many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of minerals in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is especially detailed in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Maps of Salt Fields”, compiled by the Mining Department. The maps in the collection mainly date from the 1920s and 1930s. XIX century. Many of the maps of this atlas are much wider in content than ordinary maps of salt fields, and are, in fact, early samples of geological (petrographic) maps. So, among the maps of G. Vansovich in 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The "Map of the Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with an indication of mining and salt sources discovered in 1824 ..." also has a rich geological content.

An extremely rare example of an early map is the "Topographic map of the Crimean peninsula ..." with the designation of the depth and quality of water in the villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis in 1817. In addition, the map contains information about the areas of territories, having different water supply, as well as a table of the number of villages by counties in need of water supply.

In 1840-1843. English geologist R.I. Murchison, together with A.A.Keyserling and N.I.

In the 50s. XIX century. the first geological maps are being published in Russia. One of the earliest is the "Geognostic Map of St. Petersburg Province" (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research found expression in the "Geological Map of European Russia" (AP Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1: 420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map out of the planned 170 were published. began geological mapping of some regions of Asian Russia.

In 1895, the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism was published, compiled by AA Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest manuscript maps of forests is the Map for Observing the State of Forests and the Timber Industry in [European] Russia, compiled in 1840-1841, as established by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the timber industry and timber-consuming industries, as well as on improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for her were collected through inquiries through local government property departments, as well as other departments. In the final form in 1842, two maps were drawn; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the earliest samples of soil-climatic maps, on which climatic zones and dominant soils in European Russia were indicated. Soil and climatic map has not yet been found.

The work on compiling a map of the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the device and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols were created for drawing up forest plans and maps, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state lands in Siberia, which became especially widespread after the abolition of serfdom. in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

Soil mapping

In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. Mostly on the basis of questionnaires, many handwritten soil maps were compiled. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist Academician KS Veselovsky in 1855 compiled and published the first consolidated Soil Map of European Russia, which shows eight types of soils: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, salt licks, tundra , swamps. The works of K.S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V.V. soil formation. His book Cartography of Russian Soils, published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text to the Soil Map of European Russia, laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882 V.V.Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M.Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S.Neustruev, L.I. in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V.Dokuchaev, N.M.Sibirtsev, G.I.

Socio-economic mapping

Farm mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a deeper study of the national economy. To this end, in the middle of the XIX century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was "Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and trades, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs, the main marinas, quarantines, etc. 1842" ...

A significant cartographic work is the "Economic and statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps", compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. It was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climatic, agricultural). An attempt is made in the atlas and its textual part to summarize the main features and directions of the development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century.

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten "Statistical Atlas", compiled in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the direction of NA Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting the most diverse socio-economic parameters. It, apparently, was compiled in parallel with the "Economic and statistical atlas" of 1851 and compared with it gives a lot of new information.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the "Maps of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia" compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1: 2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement of the organization of statistical affairs in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that multifaceted and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map has been an excellent reference and valuable resource for scientific research... Distinguished by the completeness of the content, expressiveness and originality of the methods of mapping, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance up to the present time.

The first capital atlas of industry was the “Statistical Atlas of the Main Branches of Factory Industry in European Russia” by DA Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of freight flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early XX century. is the "Commercial and industrial map of European Russia" VP Semyonov-Tyan-Shan scale 1: 1,680,000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and areas.

It is worth dwelling on one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album "Agricultural trade in Russia" (1914), which is a collection of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential possibilities of agricultural economy in Russia for attracting new investments from abroad.

Population mapping

PI Keppen organized a systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The work of PI Keppen resulted in the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1: 3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General AF Rittich. At the Paris International Geographic Exhibition, the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasian Territory at a scale of 1: 1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I.Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.

Other thematic cartographic works include the first map of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), A. Rakint's “General Map of the Whole Russian Empire with the Degree of Population” at a scale of 1: 21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Integrated research and mapping

In the years 1850-1853. The police department issued atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, a student of V.V.Dokuchaev, G.I. Tanfiliev's scheme clearly reflected zoning, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910 the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the capital Atlas of Asiatic Russia, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, with an appendix of an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions of agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this edition for the first time included a detailed review of the history of mapping of Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later the famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The content of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflects the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas contains an extensive set of economic maps of Asian Russia. Its central section is made up of maps, on which the general picture of land tenure and land use is shown with backgrounds of different colors, which reflects the results of the ten-year activity of the Resettlement Directorate for the settlement of migrants.

A special map has been placed on the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. The cartograms for agriculture show the share in field cultivation of different crops and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are devoted to communication routes, post offices and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for the sparsely populated Asiatic Russia.

So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of the defense, the national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. By the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state, published by A.A. Ilyin's cartographic institution in 1915.

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The division of the country into controlled regions has always been one of the foundations of the state structure of Russia. Borders within the country change regularly even in the 21st century, subject to administrative reforms. And at the stages of the Muscovy and the Russian Empire, this happened much more often due to the annexation of new lands, a change in political power or course.

Division of the country in the 15-17th centuries

At the stage of the Muscovite state, the main territorial and administrative unit were counties. They were located within the boundaries of the once independent principalities and were ruled by governors who were planted by the king. It is noteworthy that in the European part of the state, large cities (Tver, Vladimir, Rostov, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.) were administratively independent territories and were not part of the county, although they were their capitals. In the 21st century, Moscow found itself in a similar situation, which is the center of its region de facto, but de jure it is, that is, a separate region.

Each county, in turn, was divided into volosts - districts, the center of which was a large village or small town with adjacent lands. Also in the northern lands there was a division into camps, graveyards, villages or settlements in various combinations.

Border or newly annexed territories did not have counties. For example, the lands from Lake Onega to the northern part of the Ural Mountains and up to the shores of the Arctic Ocean were called Pomorie. And, which became part of the Moscow kingdom at the end of the 16th century, due to its status of "troubled lands" and the main population (Cossacks), it was divided into regiments - Kiev, Poltava, Chernigov, etc.

In general, the division of the Moscow state was very confusing, but it allowed to develop the basic principles on which the administration of territories was based in the following centuries. And the most important of them is unity of command.

Dividing the country in the 18th century

According to historians, the formation of the country's administrative division took place in several stages of reforms, of which the main ones fell on the 18th century. The provinces of the Russian Empire appeared after in 1708, and at first there were only 8 of them - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan and Siberian. A few years later, the Riga region was added to them, and each of them received not only land and a governor (governor), but also its own coat of arms.

The educated regions were oversized and therefore poorly managed. Therefore, the following reforms were aimed at reducing them and dividing them into subordinate units. The main milestones of this process:

The second reform of Peter I of 1719, under which the provinces of the Russian Empire began to be divided into provinces and districts. Subsequently, the latter were replaced by counties.
Reform of 1727, which continued the process of unbundling of territories. According to its results, there were 14 provinces and 250 counties in the country.
The reform of the beginning of the reign of Catherine I. During 1764-1766, border and remote territories were formed in the province.
Catherine's reform of 1775. The "Institution for the Governance of Provinces" signed by the Empress marked the largest administrative-territorial changes in the country's history, which lasted 10 years.

At the end of the century, the country was divided into 38 governorships, 3 provinces and an area with a special status (Tauride). Within all regions, 483 counties were allocated, which became a secondary territorial unit.

The viceroyalty and provinces of the Russian Empire in the 18th century did not last long within the borders approved by Catherine I. The process of administrative division continued in the next century.

Division of the country in the 19th century

The term "provinces of the Russian Empire" was returned during which he made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the number of regions from 51 to 42. But most of the transformations he carried out were subsequently canceled.

In the 19th century, the process of administrative-territorial division focused on the formation of regions in the Asian part of the country and in the annexed territories. Among the many changes, the following are especially worth highlighting:

Under Alexander I in 1803, the Tomsk and Yenisei provinces appeared, and the Kamchatka Territory was allocated from the Irkutsk lands. In the same period, the Grand Duchy of Finland, the Kingdom of Poland, Ternopil, Bessarabian and Bialystok provinces were formed.
In 1822, the lands of Siberia were divided into 2 general governorships - the Western with the center in Omsk and the Eastern, which had the capital Irkutsk.
Closer to the middle of the 19th century, Tiflis, Shemakha (later Baku), Dagestan, Erivan, Tersk, Batumi and Kutaisi provinces were created on the annexed lands of the Caucasus. A special area arose in the vicinity of the lands of modern Dagestan.
Primorskaya Oblast was formed in 1856 from the landlocked territories of the East Siberian Governor-General. Soon, the Amur Region was separated from it, which received the left bank of the river of the same name, and in 1884 Sakhalin Island received the status of a special department of Primorye.
The lands of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were annexed in the 1860-1870s. The resulting territories were organized in the region - Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Ural, Turkestan, Trans-Caspian, etc.

There have also been many changes in the regions of the European part of the country - borders often changed, lands were redistributed, and renaming took place. During peasant reforms the counties of the province of the Russian Empire in the 19th century were divided into rural volosts for the convenience of distribution and accounting of land.

Division of the country in the 20th century

In the last 17 years of the existence of the Russian Empire in the sphere of administrative-territorial division, there were only 2 significant changes:

The Sakhalin region was formed, which included the island of the same name and adjacent small islands and archipelagos.
The Uryankhai Territory was created on the annexed lands of southern Siberia (the modern Republic of Tuva).

The provinces of the Russian Empire retained their borders and names for 6 years after the collapse of this country, that is, until 1923, when the first reforms in the zoning of territories began in the USSR.

, The Ukrainian state and the Ukrainian SSR. The head of the province is the governor.

The original division under Peter I

Division of Russia into provinces in 1708

Until 1708, the territory of the Russian state was divided into counties of various sizes and status (former princely lands, appanages, orders, etc.) and ranks.

The first 8 provinces were formed in the course of the Regional reform, by decree of Peter I of December 18 (29), 1708:

Ingermanland (in 1710 transformed into St. Petersburg) - it was headed by Alexander Danilovich Menshikov;
Moscow - Tikhon Nikitich Streshnev;
Arkhangelsk - Pyotr Alekseevich Golitsyn;
Smolenskaya - Pyotr Samoilovich Saltykov;
Kievskaya - Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn;
Kazanskaya - Pyotr Matveevich Apraksin;
Azovskaya - Fedor Matveevich Apraksin;
Siberian - Matvey Petrovich Gagarin.

During the reform, all counties were abolished, the provinces were made up of cities and adjacent lands. As a result, the boundaries of the provinces were rather arbitrary. Provinces were headed by governors or governors-general who performed administrative, police, financial, judicial functions. The governors-general were also the commanders of the troops in the provinces under their jurisdiction. In 1710-1713, the provinces were divided into shares administered by the Landrat. In 1714, a decree of Peter I was issued, according to which shares became a unit of local self-government, the landrat was elected by local nobles. However, in fact, this order was not carried out, the Senate approved the Landrates according to the lists presented by the governors.

Second reform of Peter I

In 1719, Peter I carried out a reform of the administrative division. The provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces, in turn, into districts. The province was headed by the voivode, and the district was headed by the zemstvo commissar. According to this reform, the province became the highest regional unit of the Russian Empire, and the provinces played the role of military districts. Provincial governors were subordinate to governors only in military matters, in civil matters, governors were accountable only to the Senate.

In 1719, the Nizhny Novgorod province was restored, and the Revel province and 47 provinces were established on the newly acquired lands in the Baltic States. The Astrakhan and Revel provinces were not divided into provinces. Until 1727, the administrative-territorial division of the country did not undergo significant changes. Minor changes include the renaming of the Azov province to Voronezh in 1725 and the restoration of the Smolensk province in 1726.

Reform of 1727

In 1727, the administrative-territorial division was revised. Districts were abolished, counties were re-introduced in their place. The boundaries of the "old" districts and the "new" counties in many cases coincided or almost coincided. Belgorod (separated from Kiev) and Novgorod (separated from St. Petersburg) provinces were formed.

Subsequently, up to 1775, the administrative structure remained relatively stable with a tendency towards disaggregation. Provinces were formed mainly on newly acquired (conquered) territories, in some cases, several provinces of the old provinces were separated into new ones. By October 1775, the territory of Russia was divided into 23 provinces, 62 provinces and 276 counties (the number of counties in the Novorossiysk province is unknown and is not included in the total number).

Reorganization under Catherine II

Coats of arms of the provinces of the Russian Empire

On November 7, 1775, a decree of Catherine II was issued "Institutions for the administration of provinces", in accordance with which a radical reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire was carried out in 1775-1785. In accordance with this decree, the size of the provinces was reduced, the provinces were liquidated and the division of counties was changed. The new grid of administrative-territorial division was drawn up so that 300-400 thousand people lived in the province, and 20-30 thousand people in the district. Most of the new administrative-territorial units, with rare exceptions, received the official name "governorship". Vast territories were divided into regions. An additional impetus for the reform was the need to strengthen the central authority on the ground after the Peasant War under the leadership of E.I. Pugachev.

In 1785, after the completion of the reform, the Russian Empire was divided into 38 governorships, 3 provinces and 1 region (Tauride) with the rights of governorship. In addition, the empire included the Dwelling of the Don Cossacks, in which there was Cossack self-government.

Several governorships were governed by one governor-general, and the governor of the governorship itself (governor or governor) was appointed to the governorship itself, in addition, a body of noble self-government was formed in the governorships - the provincial noble assembly headed by the provincial leader of the nobility. The governors and governors were subordinate to the Senate and the prosecutor's supervision, headed by the prosecutor general. At the head of the county was a police captain, who was elected once every 3 years by the county noble assembly. The governor-general was appointed personally by the empress and had unlimited power in the governorships entrusted to him. Thus, an emergency management regime was actually introduced throughout the entire territory of the Russian Empire. Later, up to 1796, the formation of new governorships took place mainly as a result of the annexation of new territories.

By the end of the reign of Catherine II (November 1796), the Russian Empire included 48 governorships, 2 provinces, 1 region, as well as the lands of the Don and Black Sea Cossacks.

Pavlovsk reform

In the second half of the XIX - early XX century, 20 regions were formed - administrative units corresponding to the provinces. As a rule, the regions were located in border areas. Further centralization and bureaucratization of local government continues. There is a simplification of the local apparatus with an increase in its direct subordination to the governor personally.

The reforms of the 1860-1870s, especially the zemstvo, city and judicial reforms, introduced the bourgeois principle of elective all-estates representation in the organization of local government and courts. Elected bodies of zemstvo self-government (in 34 provinces) were in charge of the local economy, in cities - city dumas and councils. Zemsky (1890) and city (1892) counter-reforms strengthened the estate-noble representation in local government and the subordination of its administration (see Zemsky institutions (according to the Regulations of 1890)). The introduction of the institute of zemstvo chiefs (1889) as carriers of the noble-landlord's rights (appointed from the nobility) with their administrative, judicial and financial functions significantly limited the independence of peasant self-government.

Along with the collapse of the Russian Empire, the majority of the population chose to create independent national states. Many of them were never destined to remain sovereign, and they became part of the USSR. Others were incorporated into the Soviet state later. And what was the Russian empire like at the beginning XXcentury?

By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km 2. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million; Kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million - 2.6 million, Caucasian region - 9.3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million. Over 100 peoples lived; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Some of the provinces and regions were united into general governorships (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Steppe, Turkestan and Finland).

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4383.2 versts (4675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of land and sea borders is 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and sea borders - about 46,270 versts (49,360 , 4 km).

The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into four estates ("states"): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions stood out as an independent "state" (foreigners). The emblem of the Russian Empire was a two-headed eagle with tsarist regalia; the national flag - a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; the national anthem - "God Save the Tsar." National language - Russian.

Administratively, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. Provinces and regions were subdivided into 777 counties and districts and in Finland - into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections (2523 in total), as well as 274 Lensmanship in Finland.

Politically important territories (capital and border) were combined into governorships and governors general. Some cities were allocated into special administrative units - city governments.

Even before the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow into the Russian kingdom in 1547, at the beginning of the 16th century, Russian expansion began to go beyond its ethnic territory and began to absorb the following territories (the table does not indicate the lands lost before the beginning of the 19th century):

Territory	Date (year) of accession to the Russian Empire	Facts
Western Armenia (Asia Minor)		The territory was ceded in 1917-1918
Eastern Galicia, Bukovina (Eastern Europe)		In 1915 it was ceded, in 1916 it was partially recaptured, in 1917 it was lost
Uryankhai Territory (Southern Siberia)		V currently as part of the Republic of Tuva
Franz Josef Land, Emperor Nicholas II Land, New Siberian Islands (Arctic)		Archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean, fixed as the territory of Russia by a note of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Northern Iran (Middle East)		Lost as a result of revolutionary events and the Civil War in Russia. Currently owned by the state of Iran
Concession in Tianjin		Lost in 1920. Currently, the city of central subordination of the PRC
Kwantung Peninsula (Far East)		Lost as a result of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Currently, Liaoning Province, PRC
Badakhshan (Central Asia)		Currently, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous District of Tajikistan
Hankou Concession (Wuhan, East Asia)		Currently, Hubei Province, PRC
Transcaspian region (Central Asia)		Currently owned by Turkmenistan
Adjarian and Kars-Childyr sandzhaks (Transcaucasia)		In 1921 they were ceded to Turkey. Currently Adjara Autonomous Okrug of Georgia; Illy Kars and Ardahan in Turkey
Bayazet (Dogubayazit) sandzhak (Transcaucasia)		In the same year, 1878, ceded to Turkey following the results of the Berlin Congress
Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Adrianople Sandjak (Balkans)		Abolished by the results of the Berlin Congress in 1879. Currently Bulgaria, Turkey's Marmara region
Kokand Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
Khiva (Khorezm) Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
including the Aland Islands		Currently Finland, Republic of Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad regions
Tarnopolsky District of Austria (Eastern Europe)		Currently, the Ternopil region of Ukraine
Bialystok District of Prussia (Eastern Europe)		Currently Podlaskie Voivodeship of Poland
Ganja (1804), Karabakh (1805), Sheki (1805), Shirvan (1805), Baku (1806), Cuba (1806), Derbent (1806), northern part of Talysh (1809) Khanate (Transcaucasia)		Vassal khanates of Persia, seizure and voluntary entry. Sealed in 1813 by a treaty with Persia following the results of the war. Limited autonomy until the 1840s. Currently Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Imeretian kingdom (1810), Megrelian (1803) and Gurian (1804) principalities (Transcaucasia)		Kingdom and principalities of Western Georgia (since 1774 independent from Turkey). Protectorates and voluntary entries. Secured in 1812 by a treaty with Turkey and in 1813 by a treaty with Persia. Self-government until the end of the 1860s. Currently Georgia, Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti regions
Minsk, Kiev, Bratslav, eastern parts of Vilensk, Novogrudok, Beresteysk, Volyn and Podolsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel regions of Belarus; Rivne, Khmelnytsky, Zhytomyr, Vinnytsia, Kiev, Cherkassk, Kirovograd regions of Ukraine
Crimea, Edisan, Dzhambayluk, Edishkul, Small Nogai Horde (Kuban, Taman) (Northern Black Sea region)		Khanate (independent from Turkey since 1772) and nomadic Nogai tribal unions. Annexation, secured in 1792 by treaty as a result of the war. Currently Rostov region, Krasnodar region, Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol; Zaporozhye, Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa regions of Ukraine
Kuril Islands (Far East)		Ainu tribal unions, bringing into Russian citizenship, finally by 1782. Under the treaty of 1855, the South Kuriles in Japan, under the treaty of 1875 - all the islands. Currently, the Severo-Kuril, Kuril and South Kuril urban districts of the Sakhalin region
Chukotka (Far East)		Currently Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Tarkov shamkhalstvo (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Dagestan
Ossetia (Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Republic of South Ossetia
Big and Small Kabarda		Principality. In 1552-1570, a military alliance with the Russian state, later the vassals of Turkey. In the years 1739-1774, under the contract - a buffer principality. Since 1774 in Russian citizenship. Currently Stavropol Territory, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Chechen Republic
Inflyantskoe, Mstislavskoe, large parts of the Polotsk, Vitebsk Voivodeships of the Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently Vitebsk, Mogilev, Gomel regions of Belarus, Daugavpils region of Latvia, Pskov, Smolensk regions of Russia
Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn (Northern Black Sea Region)		Fortresses, from the Crimean Khanate by agreement. Recognized by Turkey in 1774 by treaty as a result of the war. The Crimean Khanate gained independence from the Ottoman Empire under the auspices of Russia. Currently, the urban district of Kerch of the Republic of Crimea of Russia, Ochakovsky district of the Nikolaev region of Ukraine
Ingushetia (North Caucasus)		Currently, the Republic of Ingushetia
Altai (Southern Siberia)		Currently Altai Territory, Altai Republic, Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, Tomsk regions of Russia, East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
Kymenigordskiy and Neishlotskiy flax - Neishlot, Vilmanstrand and Friedrichsgam (Baltic States)		Flax, from Sweden by treaty as a result of the war. Since 1809 in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. Currently Leningrad region of Russia, Finland (region of South Karelia)
Junior zhuz (Central Asia)		Currently, the West Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
(Kyrgyz land, etc.) (South Siberia)		Currently, the Republic of Khakassia
Novaya Zemlya, Taimyr, Kamchatka, Commander Islands (Arctic, Far East)		Currently, the Arkhangelsk region, Kamchatka, Krasnoyarsk Territory