Russia's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century. Cheat sheet: Russia's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century Foreign politician of the 20th century

Those who left their mark on history are remembered for centuries. Undoubtedly, all these outstanding personalities were ambitious, self-confident and purposeful.

At the same time, they are the same people as all of us - with hidden fears, childish grievances and a desire to declare themselves to the world. So let's remember once again what they were ...

1. Vladimir Lenin (04/22/1870-01/21/1924)

Country Russia
Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) is a Russian revolutionary who dreamed of leading the country to communism. His childhood passed in Simbirsk. When Vladimir was 17 years old, his older brother was hanged, proving his involvement in a conspiracy against Tsar Alexander III. This made a painful impression on the child and influenced the formation of a worldview. After graduating from school, Ulyanov (Vladimir's real name) studied abroad, and upon his return founded the Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Proletariat. He created the Iskra printed edition, from the pages of which communist ideology emanated.

Was in exile. After the revolution in February 1917, he returned to his homeland, where he headed the new government. He is the founder of the Red Army, changes war communism to a less burdensome new economic policy.

2. Adolf Hitler (04/20/1889 - 04/30/1945)

Country: Germany
Adolf Hitler is perhaps one of the most feared people in history. By origin - an Austrian, his direct ancestors were peasants. Only his father managed to become an official.

During the First World War he was in the service. He was distinguished by frailty and fawning, but masterfully mastered the art of oratory. In the post-war period, he worked as a "spy", infiltrating gang formations of communists and leftist forces.

He was a member of the meeting of the German Workers' Party, where he was imbued with the ideas of National Socialism and identified the main enemy - the Jews. The way of thinking of one person later led to millions of human victims and broken destinies of people of various nationalities.

In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. After the death of the President of Germany, he was given the powers of government, which, as we know, ended in terrible bloody events for the whole world. It is believed that Hitler committed suicide, although there is a theory of the death of his double.

3. Joseph Stalin (12/18/1878-03/05/1953)

Country: USSR
Joseph Stalin is a cult figure for an entire era, surrounded by an aura of mystery. 30 options for pseudonyms, changing the date of birth, hiding one's noble roots - these are not all the secrets of the great leader.

During his reign, a different opinion was equated with a crime - many executions were committed, the camps were overcrowded. On the other hand, the totalitarian leadership made it possible in record time to raise the USSR from the ruins of the civil war and win the Great Patriotic War.

4. Mahatma Gandhi (October 2, 1869 - January 30, 1948)

Country: India
Mahatma Gandhi is one of the most prominent people, a peacemaker who fought against aggression with his "accurate" word. He became the father of the whole nation, the "pious soul" of the whole world, vehemently defended human rights.

His personality and ideology were formed under the influence of the Mahabharata, books and correspondence with Leo Tolstoy, the philosophical teachings of G.D. Toro. He fought against caste inequality, organized the movement "Independence of India from Britain", tried to resolve the conflict that arose between Muslims and Hindus inhabiting Pakistan using non-violent principles.

5. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (05/19/1881 - 11/10/1938)

Country: Türkiye
Mustafa Kemal is considered the father of Turkey, where his personality is honored, remembered and monuments are erected in almost every city. He organized secret societies to combat the corruption of military officials, was the initiator of the liberation movement against the Anglo-Greek intervention, and also abolished the sultanate, introducing a republican form of government.

Kemal is a supporter of moderate dictatorship. He tried to reform the state along the lines of Western countries. Thanks to his efforts, women's rights were equalized with men's.

6. Konrad Adenauer (01/05/1876 - 04/19/1967)

Country: Germany (Germany)
Konrad Adenauer is the first Federal Chancellor of Germany, a ruler with positive features in the modern history of Germany. During the period when the Nazis came to power, Adenauer resigned from his posts because of his personal enmity towards Hitler. Since he was an opponent of the regime, he was arrested by the Gestapo. After the end of the Second World War, he headed the Christian Democratic Union, was Chancellor of Germany from the 49th to the 63rd year.

An energetic and strong-willed politician, a supporter of an authoritarian style of government with the simultaneous presence of rigid and flexible methods of leadership, he was able to raise the country from ruins. The rate of development of the FRG was far ahead of the GDR. Konrad Adenauer was loved by the people, had the nickname "Der Alte" ("Old Man" or "Master").

7. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (11/30/1874 - 01/24/1965)

Country: UK
One of the most prominent people in the UK, "long-liver" of the political arena. Churchill served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

His activities were not limited to politics. Winston, the son of the Duke of Marlborough, was a versatile personality: a historian, artist and writer (awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature). Churchill was the first to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.

8. Charles de Gaulle (11/22/1890 - 11/9/1970)

Country: France
A well-known French politician, the first president of the Fifth Republic. He headed the anti-Hitler coalition, in 1944-1946 he was the head of the provisional government of France. On his initiative, in 1958, a new constitution was prepared, which expanded the rights of the president.

Of particular importance is the withdrawal from the NATO bloc and French-Soviet cooperation. Supported the creation of its own nuclear forces.

9. Mikhail Gorbachev (03/02/1931)

Country: USSR
Mikhail Gorbachev is the first and only president of the USSR, a politician who wanted to make the country more open and democratic. The restructuring of the state, which Mikhail Gorbachev began, has become a difficult period for all the people of the post-Soviet space. The collapse of the USSR, the decline of the economy, unemployment - all this is well remembered by people who lived at the end of the 20th century.

The undoubted success of Mikhail Sergeyevich was his meetings with Ronald Reagan and the first steps towards ending the Cold War with the United States. In 1991, Gorbachev announced that he was leaving the presidency, transferring powers to Boris Yeltsin.

10. Vladimir Putin (07.10.1952)

Country Russia
Vladimir Putin is an outstanding politician of the Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin's successor. Today Vladimir Putin leads the country for the third time. A native of a simple working-class family was in the service of the KGB. He worked in the state security bodies of Dresden in the GDR. In 1991 he returned to his homeland, to St. Petersburg, where he headed the committee for external relations of the mayor's office.

Putin managed to stabilize the situation in Chechnya and stick to social priorities during the 2008 economic crisis. The third term of the president was crowned with active actions to return the Crimea to Russia in connection with the refusal of the population to obey the new illegitimate government in Ukraine. This situation was not accepted by the heads of the European countries.

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Introduction

The end of the First World War (the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919), the civil war and foreign intervention in Russia created new conditions in international relations. An important factor was the existence of the Soviet state as a fundamentally new socio-political system. A confrontation developed between the Soviet state and the leading countries of the capitalist world. It was this line that prevailed in international relations in the 1920s and 1930s. At the same time, the contradictions between the largest capitalist states, as well as between them and the "awakening" countries of the East, intensified. In the 1930s, the alignment of international political forces was largely determined by the growing aggression of the militarist states—Germany, Italy, and Japan.

The foreign policy of the Soviet state, while maintaining the continuity of the policy of the Russian Empire in the implementation of geopolitical tasks, differed from it in a new nature and methods of implementation. It was characterized by the ideologization of the foreign policy course, based on two provisions formulated by V.I. Lenin.

The first is the principle of proletarian internationalism, which provided for the mutual assistance of the international working class in the struggle against the world capitalist system and the support of anti-colonial national movements. It was based on the belief of the Bolsheviks in a speedy socialist revolution on a world scale. In the development of this principle, in 1919, the Communist International (Comintern) was created in Moscow. It included many left-wing socialist parties in Europe and Asia that switched to Bolshevik (communist) positions. From the moment of its foundation, the Comintern was used by Soviet Russia to interfere in the internal affairs of many states of the world, which aggravated its relations with other countries.

The second provision - the principle of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist system - was determined by the need to strengthen the positions of the Soviet state in the international arena, to get out of political and economic isolation, and to ensure the security of its borders. It meant the recognition of the possibility of peaceful cooperation and, above all, the development of economic ties with the West.

The inconsistency of these two fundamental provisions caused inconsistency in the foreign policy actions of the young Soviet state.

Western policy toward Soviet Russia was no less controversial. On the one hand, he sought to strangle the new political system and isolate it politically and economically. On the other hand, the leading powers of the world set themselves the task of compensating for the loss of money and material property lost after October.

They also pursued the goal of "reopening" Russia to gain access to its raw materials, the penetration of foreign capital and goods into it.

This led to the gradual transition of Western countries from non-recognition of the USSR to the desire to establish not only economic, but also political relations with it.

During the 1920s and 1930s the prestige of the Soviet Union in the international arena steadily increased. However, his relationship with the West had an inconsistent, amplitude character.

1. Foreign policy of the Soviet state in the first half of the 1920s

1.1 Foreign policy situation at the beginning of the 20s

The Decree on Peace, adopted in November 1917 by the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, became the first foreign policy act of the Soviet state. However, it soon became clear that diplomatic relations could only be established with Germany's allies, the so-called Central Powers.

The conclusion of the Brest Peace meant a temporary respite. The German diplomat Paul von Hinze commented on the Brest-Litovsk Treaty in the following way: “The Bolsheviks are vile and highly nasty people, but this did not prevent us from imposing the Brest Peace on them. We do not cooperate with them, but use them.

It's political, and it's politics." But, after a while, it became clear who was using whom. After the defeat of Germany in World War I, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was annulled by the Soviet government.

In the early 1920s, the West softened its irreconcilable position towards Soviet Russia. This was facilitated by the failure of direct military intervention, the growing crisis of overproduction, and the growth of the labor movement in the capitalist countries. The introduction of the NEP was seen by European governments as a weakening of the Bolshevik political system and as an opportunity for economic cooperation. For its part, Soviet Russia needed the help of developed capitalist countries to restore the destroyed national economy.

1.2 Solving two main foreign policy tasks

In the first years of its existence, the Soviet state was forced to solve two problems. On the one hand, the recognition of Soviet power by the major world powers was necessary. On the other hand, Lenin and his comrades-in-arms never abandoned the course of world revolution, which meant the overthrow of existing governments and the establishment of communist regimes in neighboring states, and in the future throughout the world. So, on March 17, 1920, Lenin, on a direct occasion, demanded that Stalin, who was in the south, speed up the operation to eliminate Denikin’s troops in the Crimea, since “news had just come from Germany that there was a battle in Berlin and Spartak (members of the communist Spartak Union”) took over part of the city. Who will win is unknown, but it is necessary for us ... to have completely free hands, for a civil war in Germany may force us to move west to help the communists. In fact, in those days, the battles in Berlin were not fought by the communists, but by right-wing putschists, led by the landowner Wolfgang Kapp. However, soon the campaign to the German borders nevertheless took place - during the Soviet-Polish war, but ended in disaster near Warsaw. It became clear that "exporting the revolution" on Red Army bayonets was a difficult task. It was hoped that internal problems in Germany, Poland, and other countries west of the Soviet borders, hard hit by the First World War, would cause communist uprisings there, to the aid of which the Red Army would come.

The states that were previously part of the Russian Empire (Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, as well as Romania, which annexed Russian Bessarabia), were called "limitrophes", i.e. "borderline". According to the plan of England and France, they were supposed to form a kind of "cordon sanitaire" against the penetration of the Bolsheviks into Germany and further to the West.

1.3 Expanding the sphere of influence in the East

The first successes of Soviet diplomacy were achieved in neighboring states. The strengthening of relations between the young Soviet state and its eastern neighbors was of great importance. In 1921, the RSFSR signed agreements with Iran, Afghanistan and Turkey. These documents resolved disputed border and property issues, proclaimed the principles of mutual recognition and mutual assistance. These agreements expanded the sphere of influence of Soviet Russia in the East. The Soviet-Mongolian treaty of 1921 actually meant the establishment of a protectorate of Soviet Russia over Mongolia and the first experience of "exporting the revolution". Part of the Red Army, introduced into this country, supported the Mongol revolution and strengthened the regime of its leader Sukhe-Bator.

In parallel with these foreign policy successes in 1921-1922. trade agreements between Russia and England, Austria, Norway, etc. were concluded. They also contained obligations to abandon mutual hostile propaganda. At the same time, treaties were signed, political and economic contacts were established with neighboring Western states that formed as a result of the collapse of the Russian Empire - Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland.

1.4 Genoa Conference

In 1921, the Entente countries offered the Soviet government to take part in an international conference to settle disputes related to the economic claims of the West against Russia. If accepted, the European countries promised to officially recognize Soviet Russia. In April 1922, the Genoa Conference opened. 29 states participated in it - Russia, England, France, Germany and others. The Western powers presented Russia with joint demands: to compensate the debts of the tsarist and Provisional governments (18 billion rubles in gold); to return Western property nationalized by the Bolsheviks on the territory of the former Russian Empire; abolish the monopoly of foreign trade and open the way for foreign capital; stop revolutionary propaganda in their countries.

The Soviet government put forward its own conditions: to compensate for the damage caused by foreign intervention during the civil war (39 billion rubles); ensure broad economic cooperation on the basis of long-term Western loans; to accept the Soviet program for the general reduction of armaments and the prohibition of the most barbaric methods of warfare.

During the conference, there was a split among the Western powers. Negotiations stalled due to mutual unwillingness to political compromise. And although it was not possible to solve this problem, Soviet diplomats were still able to win, however, in a different matter. Germany, having lost the war, was in a humiliated position.

In this situation, on April 16, 1922, a Soviet-German treaty was signed on the restoration of diplomatic relations and economic cooperation. Under the treaty, the USSR and Germany refused to compensate for the losses that both sides suffered in the First World War. In addition, Germany renounced claims to the property of German subjects nationalized in Russia. On the basis of the Rapallo Treaty of 1922, Soviet-German relations developed in the 1920s in a friendly direction.

Nevertheless, until the autumn of 1923, the Kremlin did not give up hope for the victory of the German revolution. Agents of the Comintern, military specialists, employees of the OGPU and the intelligence department of the Red Army were secretly sent to Germany. In addition, hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on financing the German Communist Party. However, after the failure of the uprising in Hamburg in September 1923, Stalin, Zinoviev, Trotsky and other Bolshevik leaders realized that the world revolution was being postponed indefinitely.

1.5 Time complications with England and France

Relations with other European states (England and France) were complex. In 1923, a conflict arose between the USSR and Great Britain. She presented the Soviet government with a note (Curzon's ultimatum), in which she protested against the expansion of Russian influence in the Near and Middle East. After some time, the conflict was settled by diplomatic means, the parties declared that they considered it settled.

The British government led by James MacDonald recognized the USSR in February 1924.

Gradually, it was possible to establish diplomatic relations with France and Italy - the USSR was interested in trade with these countries no less than with England. The French government recognized the USSR in October 1924.

The streak of diplomatic recognition was due to three reasons:

1) a change in the internal political situation in the countries of the West (the right-wing socialist forces came to power);

2) a broad social movement in support of the USSR;

3) the economic interests of the capitalist states.

1.6 Foreign policy in the second half of the 1920s

In the second half of the 1920s, the official foreign policy of the Soviet government was aimed at strengthening its international prestige, developing economic cooperation with capitalist countries, and solving the problems of disarmament and international security. In 1926, a non-aggression and neutrality pact was signed with Germany.

To strengthen the security of its southern borders, the USSR expanded its influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Turkey. In the mid-1920s, new political and economic agreements were concluded with them.

In the Middle East, in the spring of 1929, the USSR undertook a military intervention in Afghanistan to support the friendly government of King Amanullah Khan, against whom a popular uprising arose. During the campaign to the north of the country, up to 120 Red Army soldiers and about 8 thousand Afghans were killed and wounded. However, by that time the king had already left Kabul and emigrated to India. The Soviet corps was forced to return. Soon British influence was established in Afghanistan.

The implementation of the official foreign policy line of the Soviet government was complicated by its interference (through the Comintern) in the internal affairs of other states. In particular, in 1926, material assistance was provided to striking British workers, which was painfully received by the British authorities. Great Britain in 1927 temporarily broke off diplomatic and trade relations with the Soviet Union. The governments of the United States, France, Belgium and Canada imposed an embargo on the supply of Soviet goods to their countries.

1.7 Foreign policy relations with China

Diplomatic relations with China were established in 1924.

At that time, there was actually no central government in China, there was a civil war going on there. Moscow supported the Kuomintang (the political party of China, which played a progressive role since 1912, and after 1927 turned into the ruling party of the bourgeois-landowner reaction, whose power was overthrown by the Chinese people in 1949), led by Sun Yat-sen and acting in alliance with the Chinese Communist Party . Kuomintang troops fought in the north of the country with the armies of the Chinese General Zhang Zuoling, who was supported by Japan, and General W. Peifu, who was assisted by England and the USA.

Under the slogan of proletarian internationalism, the USSR intervened in the internal affairs of China. Soviet aid was sent to the government of Sun Yat-sen. A group of military advisers headed by Army Commander Vasily Blyukher arrived in the city of Canton. Their experience helped to reorganize the National Army, which won a series of victories in 1926-1927. After that, the commander-in-chief of the Kuomintang army, Marshal Chiang Kai-shek, who replaced the deceased Sun Yat-sen, actually broke off the alliance with the communists.

In July 1929, Zhang Zuoling's troops captured the Chinese Eastern Railway, but in November they were defeated by units of the Special Far Eastern Army. In this regard, diplomatic relations were severed with the central Chinese government in Nanjing, headed by Chiang Kai-shek. They were restored only in 1932, after Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931. Japan was a danger to both the Soviet Union and China.

In 1928, the VI Congress of the Comintern took place. He noted the growing tension in international relations, the danger of a new world war and the possibility of an attack on the USSR. In this difficult international situation, the Comintern made a mistake and rejected potential allies - the Social Democrats, declaring them its main political opponent. In this regard, a line was proclaimed to refuse all cooperation and fight against them. In fact, these decisions led to the self-isolation of the international communist movement, the violation of the principle of proletarian internationalism and contributed to the arrival of right-wing extremist (fascist) forces in a number of countries.

In 1920-1929. The Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with the states of different continents and concluded a number of trade agreements. Of the leading capitalist powers, only the United States remained in the position of political non-recognition of the USSR. The way out of international isolation was the main result of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union in the first half of the 1920s.

2. The internal situation of the RSFSR in 1920-1921.

The economic and social crisis of late 1920 - early 1921. The policy of "war communism" led the country's economy to complete collapse. The population decreased by 10.9 million people. During the hostilities, the Donbass, the Baku oil region, the Urals and Siberia were especially affected, many mines and mines were destroyed. Factories stopped due to lack of fuel and raw materials. The workers were forced to leave the cities and went to the countryside. Petrograd lost 60% of its workers when Putilovsky, Obukhovsky and other enterprises closed down, Moscow - 50%. Stopped traffic on 30 railways. Inflation was rampant. Agricultural products produced only 60% of the pre-war volume. The sown area was reduced by 25%, as the peasants were not interested in expanding the economy. In 1921, due to crop failure, mass famine swept through the city and countryside.

The failure of the policy of “war communism” was not immediately recognized by the Bolshevik government. In 1920, the Council of People's Commissars continued to strengthen the non-market, distributive communist principles. The nationalization of industry was extended to small enterprises. In December 1920, the VIII All-Russian Congress of Soviets approved a plan for the restoration of the national economy and its electrification (the GOELRO plan). In February 1921, the Council of People's Commissars created the State Commission (Gosplan) to develop current and long-term plans for the country's economic development. The range of agricultural products has expanded; subject to appraisal. A decree on the abolition of monetary circulation was being prepared. However, these measures came into complete conflict with the demands of the workers and peasants. In parallel with the economic crisis, a social crisis was growing in the country.

The workers were irritated by unemployment and food shortages. They were dissatisfied with the infringement of the rights of trade unions, the introduction of forced labor and its equal pay. In the cities in late 1920 - early 1921 there were strikes in which the workers advocated the democratization of the country's political system, the convening of the Constituent Assembly, the abolition of special distributors and rations.

The peasants, outraged by the actions of the food detachments, not only ceased to hand over bread according to the surplus appropriation, but began to rise even more actively in the armed struggle. The uprisings swept the Tambov region (under the leadership of A.S. Antonov, 1920-1921), Ukraine, the Don, Kuban, the Volga region and Siberia. The peasants demanded a change in agrarian policy, the elimination of the dictates of the RCP (b), the convening of the Constituent Assembly on the basis of universal equal suffrage. Units of the Red Army and the Cheka were sent to suppress these speeches. The best Soviet commander M.N. was appointed the head of the suppression of the Antonov uprising in 1921. Tukhachevsky, who, with Lenin's permission, used chemical warfare agents (gases) against the insurgent peasants.

Uprising in Kronstadt. In March 1921, the sailors and Red Army men of the naval fortress of Kronstadt demanded the release of all representatives of the socialist parties from imprisonment, the re-election of councils and the expulsion of communists from them, the granting of freedom of speech, assembly and unions to all parties, ensuring freedom of trade, allowing peasants to freely use the land and dispose of the products of their economy, i.e. liquidation of the surplus. The workers supported the Kronstadters. In response, the Bolshevik government imposed a state of siege in Petrograd, declared the rebels rebels and refused to negotiate with them. Regiments of the Red Army, reinforced by detachments of the Cheka and delegates of the 10th Congress of the RCP (b), who had specially arrived from Moscow, stormed Kronstadt. 2.5 thousand sailors were arrested, many were killed, 6-8 thousand emigrated to Finland.

By the spring of 1921, the hope of the Bolsheviks for an early world revolution and material and technical assistance from the European proletariat was exhausted. Therefore, Lenin revised his internal political course and recognized that only concessions to the peasants could save the power of the Bolsheviks.

New Economic Policy (NEP).

The essence and purpose of the NEP. At the Tenth Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921, Lenin proposed a new economic policy. It was an anti-crisis program, the essence of which was to recreate a multi-structural economy and use the organizational and technical experience of the capitalists while maintaining the "commanding heights" in the hands of the Bolshevik government. They were understood as political and economic levers of influence: the absolute power of the RCP (b), the state sector in industry, a centralized financial system and a monopoly of foreign trade.

The main political goal of the NEP is to relieve social tension, to strengthen the social base of Soviet power in the form of an alliance of workers and peasants. The economic goal is to prevent further aggravation of the devastation, to get out of the crisis and restore the economy. The social goal is to provide favorable conditions for building a socialist society without waiting for the world revolution. In addition, the NEP was aimed at restoring normal foreign policy and foreign economic relations, at overcoming international isolation. The achievement of these goals led to the gradual curtailment of the NEP in the second half of the 1920s.

NEP implementation. The transition to the NEP was legally formalized by decrees of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, decisions of the IX All-Russian Congress of Soviets in December 1921. The NEP included a set of economic and socio-political measures. They meant a "retreat" from the principles of "war communism" - the revival of private enterprise, the introduction of freedom of internal trade and the satisfaction of some of the demands of the peasantry.

The introduction of the NEP began with agriculture by replacing the surplus appropriation with a food tax (tax in kind). It was established before the sowing campaign, could not be changed during the year, and was 2 times less than the allocation. After the fulfillment of state deliveries, free trade in the products of their economy was allowed. The lease of land and the hiring of labor were allowed. The forcible planting of communes ceased, which made it possible for the private, small-scale commodity sector to gain a foothold in the countryside. Individual peasants provided 98.5% of agricultural products. The new economic policy in the countryside was aimed at stimulating agricultural production. As a result, by 1925, the gross grain harvest on the restored sown areas exceeded the average annual level of pre-war Russia by 20.7%. The supply of agricultural raw materials to industry has improved.

In production and trade, private individuals were allowed to open small and rent medium-sized enterprises. The decree on general nationalization was repealed. Large domestic and foreign capital was granted concessions, the right to create joint-stock and joint ventures with the state. Thus, a new state-capitalist sector emerged for the Russian economy. Strict centralization was canceled in the supply of enterprises with raw materials and the distribution of finished products. The activities of state enterprises aimed at greater independence, self-sufficiency and self-financing.

Instead of a sectoral system of industrial management, a territorial-sectoral system was introduced. After the reorganization of the Supreme Council of National Economy, the leadership was carried out by its central boards through local economic councils (sovnarkhozes) and sectoral economic trusts.

In the financial sector, in addition to the single State Bank, private and cooperative banks and insurance companies appeared. Charges were made for the use of transport, communication systems and utilities. State loans were issued, which were forcibly distributed among the population in order to pump out personal funds for the development of industry. In 1922, a monetary reform was carried out: the issue of paper money was reduced and the Soviet chervonets (10 rubles) was introduced into circulation, which was highly valued on the world currency market. This made it possible to strengthen the national currency and put an end to inflation. Evidence of the stabilization of the financial situation was the replacement of the tax in kind with its monetary equivalent.

As a result of the new economic policy in 1926, the main types of industrial products reached the pre-war level. Light industry developed faster than heavy industry, which required significant capital investments. The living conditions of the urban and rural population have improved. The abolition of the food distribution rationing system has begun. Thus, one of the tasks of the NEP - overcoming the devastation - was solved.

NEP caused some changes in social policy. In 1922, a new Code of Labor Laws was adopted, which abolished general labor service and introduced free employment of labor. Labor mobilization has stopped. To stimulate the material interest of workers in increasing labor productivity, a reform of the wage system was carried out. Instead of remuneration in kind, a monetary system based on the tariff scale was introduced. However, social policy had a pronounced class orientation. In the election of deputies to government bodies, the workers still had the advantage. Part of the population, as before, was deprived of voting rights ("disenfranchised"). In the taxation system, the main burden fell on private entrepreneurs in the city and "kulaks" in the countryside. The poor were exempted from paying taxes, the middle peasants paid half.

New trends in domestic politics have not changed the methods of political leadership of the country. State issues were still decided by the party apparatus. However, the socio-political crisis of 1920-1921. and the introduction of the NEP did not go unnoticed for the Bolsheviks. Among them, discussions began about the role and place of trade unions in the state, about the essence and political significance of the NEP. Factions appeared with their own platforms that opposed Lenin's position. Some insisted on the democratization of the management system, granting trade unions broad economic rights (the "workers' opposition"). Others suggested even more centralization of management and the virtual elimination of trade unions (Trotsky). Many communists withdrew from the RCP(b), believing that the introduction of NEP meant the restoration of capitalism and a betrayal of socialist principles. The ruling party was threatened with a split, which, from Lenin's point of view, was completely unacceptable. At the Tenth Congress of the RCP(b) resolutions were adopted condemning the "anti-Marxist" views of the "workers' opposition" and forbidding the creation of factions and groups. After the congress, a check was made on the ideological stability of the party members (“purge”), which reduced its membership by a quarter. All this made it possible to strengthen unanimity in the party and its unity as the most important link in the system of government.

The second link in the political system of Soviet power continued to be the apparatus of violence - the Cheka, renamed in 1922 into the Main Political Directorate. The GPU monitored the mood of all sectors of society, identified dissidents, sent them to prisons and concentration camps. Particular attention was paid to the political opponents of the Bolshevik regime. In 1922, the GPU accused 47 previously arrested leaders of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party of counter-revolutionary activities. The first major political trial took place under the Bolshevik regime. The tribunal of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee sentenced 12 defendants to death, the rest to various terms of imprisonment. In the autumn of 1922, 160 scientists and cultural figures were expelled from Russia, who did not share the Bolshevik doctrine (“philosophical ship”). The ideological confrontation was over.

By implanting the Bolshevik ideology in society, the Soviet government dealt a blow to the Russian Orthodox Church and brought it under its control, despite the decree on the separation of church and state. In 1922, under the pretext of raising funds to fight the famine, a significant part of church property was confiscated. Anti-religious propaganda intensified, temples and cathedrals were destroyed. Priests began to be persecuted. Patriarch Tikhon was placed under house arrest.

In order to undermine intra-church unity, the government provided material and moral support to the “renovationist” trends, which were unconditionally loyal to the Bolsheviks. After Tikhon's death in 1925, the government prevented the election of a new patriarch. The locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Peter, was arrested. His successor, Metropolitan Sergius, and 8 bishops were forced to demonstrate loyalty to the Soviet government. In 1927, they signed a Declaration in which they obliged priests who did not recognize the new government to withdraw from church affairs.

Strengthening the unity of the party, the defeat of political and ideological opponents made it possible to strengthen the one-party political system, in which the so-called "dictatorship of the proletariat in alliance with the peasantry" in fact meant the dictatorship of the Central Committee of the RCP (b). This political system, with minor changes, continued to exist throughout the years of Soviet power.

Results of the domestic policy of the early 20s. NEP ensured the stabilization and restoration of the economy. However, soon after its introduction, the first successes gave way to new difficulties. Their occurrence was due to three reasons: the imbalance of industry and agriculture; purposefully class orientation of the internal policy of the government; strengthening contradictions between the diversity of social interests of different strata of society and the authoritarianism of the Bolshevik leadership.

The need to ensure the independence and defense of the country required the further development of the economy, primarily heavy industry. The priority of industry over agriculture resulted in the transfer of funds from the countryside to the city through price and tax policies. Sales prices for manufactured goods were artificially raised, and purchase prices for raw materials and products were lowered (“price scissors”). The difficulty of establishing a normal exchange of goods between the city and the countryside also gave rise to the unsatisfactory quality of industrial products. In the autumn of 1923, a sales crisis broke out, overstocking with expensive and poor manufactured goods, which the population refused to buy. In 1924, a price crisis was added to it, when the peasants, who had gathered a good harvest, refused to give grain to the state at fixed prices, deciding to sell it on the market. Attempts to force the peasants to hand over their grain at the tax in kind caused mass uprisings (in the Amur region, Georgia and other regions). In the mid-1920s, the volume of state procurements of grain and raw materials fell. This reduced the ability to export agricultural products and therefore reduced the foreign exchange earnings needed to buy industrial equipment from abroad.

To overcome the crisis, the Soviet government took a number of administrative measures. The centralized management of the economy was strengthened, the independence of enterprises was limited, prices for manufactured goods were increased, and taxes for private entrepreneurs, merchants and "kulaks" were raised. This meant the beginning of the collapse of the NEP.

The new direction of domestic policy was caused by the desire of the party leadership to accelerate the destruction of elements of capitalism by administrative methods, to resolve all economic and social difficulties in one blow, without developing a mechanism for interaction between the state, cooperative and private sectors of the economy. Its inability to overcome the crisis phenomena; The Stalinist leadership of the party explained economic methods and the use of command and directive methods by the activities of the class “enemies of the people” (nepmen, “kulaks”, agronomists, engineers and other specialists). This served as the basis for the deployment of repressions and the organization of new political processes.

Intra-party struggle for power. The economic and socio-political difficulties that manifested themselves already in the first years of the NEP, the desire to build socialism in the absence of experience in realizing this goal gave rise to an ideological crisis. All the fundamental questions of the country's development provoked sharp inner-party discussions.

Lenin, the author of NEP, who proclaimed in 1921 that this would be a policy "in earnest and for a long time", already a year later at the Eleventh Party Congress declared that it was time to stop the "retreat" towards capitalism and it was necessary to move on to building socialism. He wrote a number of works called Lenin's "political testament" by Soviet historians. In them, he formulated the main directions of the party's activities: industrialization (technical re-equipment of industry), broad cooperation (primarily in agriculture) and cultural revolution (elimination of illiteracy, raising the cultural and educational level of the population). At the same time, Lenin insisted on maintaining the unity and leading role of the party in the state. In his “Letter to the Congress”, he gave very impartial political and personal characteristics to six members of the Politburo (L.D. Trotsky, L.B. Kamenev, G.E. Zinoviev, N.I. Bukharin, G.L. Pyatakov, I. V. Stalin). Lenin also warned the party against its bureaucratization and the possibility of factional struggle, considering the main danger of political ambitions and rivalry between Trotsky and Stalin.

Lenin's illness, as a result of which he was removed from solving state-party affairs, and then his death in January 1924, complicated the situation in the party. Back in the spring of 1922, the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) was established. Stalin became them. He unified the structure of party committees at different levels, which led to the strengthening of not only intra-party centralization, but also the entire administrative-state system. Stalin concentrated enormous power in his hands, placing cadres loyal to him in the center and in the localities.

Different understanding of the principles and methods of socialist construction, personal ambitions (Trotsky, Kamenev, Zinoviev and other representatives of the "old guard", who had significant Bolshevik pre-October experience), their rejection of Stalin's methods of leadership - all this caused opposition speeches in the Politburo of the party, in a number of local party committees, in press. Theoretical disagreements about the possibility of building socialism either in one country (Lenin, Stalin), or only on a global scale (Trotsky) were combined with the desire to occupy a leading position in the party and state. Pushing political opponents and skillfully interpreting their statements as anti-Leninist, Stalin consistently eliminated his opponents. Trotsky was expelled from the USSR in 1929. Kamenev, Zinoviev and their supporters were repressed in the 1930s.

The foundation stone for Stalin's personality cult was laid in the course of internal party discussions in the 1920s under the slogan of choosing the right, "Leninist" way of building socialism and establishing ideological unity.

Conclusion

Soviet International Versailles

During the 1920s, the prestige of the Soviet Union in the international arena steadily increased. However, his relationship with the West had an inconsistent, amplitude character.

The foreign policy of the Soviet state, while maintaining the continuity of the policy of the Russian Empire in the implementation of geopolitical tasks, differed from it in a new nature and methods of implementation. It was characterized by the ideologization of the foreign policy course, based on two provisions formulated by V.I. Lenin: firstly, the principle of proletarian internationalism, and secondly, the principle of peaceful coexistence with the capitalist system.

The inconsistency of these two fundamental provisions caused the inconsistency of the foreign policy actions of the young Soviet state throughout the 1920s. XX century.

The policy of the 1920s showed the success of the Soviet government in breaking the political blockade with the West. The successful policy of the Soviet state gave confidence to the new government, giving impetus to a more active foreign policy with the states of East Asia and Japan. The Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with the states of different continents and concluded a number of trade agreements. The foreign policy of the state during this period is active, but unsystematic.

Later, in the early 1930s, the government sent to structure its activities, giving it a more rigorous and meaningful look.

Bibliography

1. Kiselev A.F., “The latest history of the Fatherland. XX century”, M., Vlados, 2002 - 336s.

2. Munchaev Sh.M., "History of Russia" M., Norma, 2004 - 768s.

3. Orlov A.S., History of Russia, 2nd ed. M., Prospekt, 2004 - 520s.

4. Ostrovsky V.P., “History of Russia. XX century "M., Bustard, 2001 - 425s.

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Russia's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century

One of the most significant events of the early 20th century for Russia was the war with Japan in 1904-1905. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the country has seriously strengthened its presence in the Far East. Military bases appeared on the Liaodong Peninsula, the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Manchurian CER were created. This could not but cause serious concern in the actively developing Japan. But, not only the territorial interests of Russia and Japan caused the conflict. The Russian government believed that a "small victorious war" would improve the situation inside the country. The beginning of the 20th century in Russia was marked by the growth of revolutionary sentiments among the broad masses of the people.

But, due to the lack of modern technical equipment of the army, in many cases - mediocrity and even betrayal of the interests of the country by the tsarist generals, almost complete diplomatic isolation, Russia was dealt a crushing defeat. As a result, Russia had to not only leave Port Arthur, Liaodong, and half of Sakhalin Island, but also give up its interests in Korea. Russia's position in the international arena turned out to be extremely difficult.

At the same time, the international situation continued to heat up. In opposition to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary), the goal of which was to achieve dominance in the world, the Entente bloc (Russia, England, France) was created. Despite the existence of serious contradictions between the countries of the Entente, in particular - Russia and England in the Middle East, Russia and France - in the Balkans, the Entente was still a serious deterrent to the actions of the Triple Alliance. An agreement was signed between Russia and Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in Tibet, Iran, and Afghanistan. It is worth noting that the Entente bloc finally took shape only with the beginning of the First World War.

The foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, which had lost some of its influence, was forcedly cautious. Due to the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and the need to stabilize the situation inside the country, Russian diplomats sought to avoid any foreign political conflicts. However, soon Russia had, despite the difficult internal situation, to enter the First World War. (Germany declared war on Russia on July 21, 1914 in response to the general mobilization initiated in the country). By that time, the military reform, begun after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, was still far from complete.

Russo-Japanese War

The Russo-Japanese War began on January 26 (or, according to the new style, February 8) 1904. The Japanese fleet unexpectedly, before the official declaration of war, attacked ships located on the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. As a result of this attack, the most powerful ships of the Russian squadron were disabled. The declaration of war took place only on 10 February.

The most important reason for the Russo-Japanese War was the expansion of Russia to the east. However, the immediate reason was the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, previously captured by Japan. This provoked military reform and the militarization of Japan.

About the reaction of Russian society to the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war, one can briefly say this: Japan's actions outraged Russian society. The world community reacted differently. England and the USA took a pro-Japanese position. And the tone of the press reports was distinctly anti-Russian. France, which at that time was an ally of Russia, declared neutrality - an alliance with Russia was necessary for it in order to prevent the strengthening of Germany. But, already on April 12, France concluded an agreement with England, which caused a cooling of Russian-French relations. Germany, on the other hand, declared friendly neutrality towards Russia.

The course of the war was clearly in favor of Japan. However, its economy was depleted by the war. This forced Japan to enter into peace negotiations. In Portsmouth, on August 9, participants in the Russo-Japanese War began a peace conference. It should be noted that these negotiations were a major success for the Russian diplomatic delegation headed by Witte. The signed peace treaty sparked protests in Tokyo. But, nevertheless, the consequences of the Russo-Japanese war turned out to be very tangible for the country. During the conflict, the Russian Pacific Fleet was practically destroyed. The war claimed more than 100 thousand lives of soldiers heroically defending their country. The expansion of Russia to the East was stopped. Also, the defeat showed the weakness of the tsarist policy, which to a certain extent contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiment and eventually led to the revolution of 1905-1907. Among the reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. the most important are the following:

· diplomatic isolation of the Russian Empire;

unpreparedness of the Russian army for combat operations in difficult conditions;

• outright betrayal of the interests of the fatherland or mediocrity of many tsarist generals;

· serious superiority of Japan in the military and economic spheres.

Seminar №10

1) The revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

Social contradictions and the inability of the government to solve the most important political problems led at the beginning of the 20th century to a deep socio-political crisis, which was expressed in:

• in the struggle of the working people against the autocratic system
• in disputes within the ruling elite and fluctuations in the government's course
• in expanding the process of formalizing political movements and trends in the party

WORK MOVEMENT

Started at the end of the 19th century. industrialization led to the quantitative and qualitative growth of the working class. This contributed to the consolidation of the working class, simplified the task of its unification and the emergence of a labor movement. The main requirement of the workers was the limitation of the working day to 8 hours. One of the requirements was the creation of a state insurance system.

Difficult living and working conditions forced the workers to organize and fight for their rights. Since 1900, Russian workers began to hold rallies and demonstrations, to put forward their demands. The strikes were mainly economic in nature. There was no unified approach in the government on the labor issue. Instead of harsh measures, the head of the Moscow security department, S. V. Zubatov, suggested that the authorities themselves create workers' organizations, form funds for the social support of workers, open shops and schools (“Zubatovshchina”). The Zubatovsky “code” even permitted an economic strike. This was the main reason for the criticism of Zubatov and his resignation in 1903. The government again took the path of forceful measures. Becoming more and more mass and organized, the labor movement changes its character. Under the influence of social democracy, its participants more and more often put forward political demands along with economic ones. Organizations of social democracy are being created in St. Petersburg (1895 - "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", leaders: A. A. Vaneev,

P. K. Zaporozhets, V. I. Ulyanov, Lev Martov), ​​in Moscow (1894 - "Workers' Union", 1898 - "Russian Social Democratic Labor Party", then the committee of the RSDLP), and then the whole country. Since the beginning of the XX century. in the labor movement, a transition to mass political action is planned.

PEASANT MOVEMENT

Influenced by the agrarian crisis at the beginning of the 20th century. the peasant movement grew noticeably. The famine that engulfed the central and southern provinces of Russia in 1901 played a major role in worsening the already disastrous situation of the peasantry. In 1900-1904. peasant protests reached a significant scale (about 600 unrest in 42 provinces of the European part of Russia). However, during these years, the peasants rarely put forward political demands, as a rule, they act against individual landowners and demand the division of the landowners' land, the reduction of taxes and duties. The peasant movement developed especially widely in March-April 1902 in the Poltava and Kharkov provinces, which included more than 150 thousand peasants. Government troops were brought into these provinces. Peasants were punished by entire villages, put on trial, exiled to hard labor. For the "losses" inflicted on the landowners, the government imposed an additional tax of 800,000 rubles on the peasants.

MOVEMENT OF THE INTELLIGENCE

An important evidence of the growing crisis situation in the country was the movement of the democratic intelligentsia. It demanded political freedoms (freedom of the press, assembly, speech, etc.) and opposed police brutality. Her participation in the social movement was expressed in the creation of legal societies (scientists, doctors), at whose meetings acute political issues were discussed; in collecting money for strikers and political prisoners, in providing safe houses for revolutionaries.

STUDENT MOVEMENT

Students were the most active. At the beginning of the XX century. a significant part of the revolutionary-minded students went over to an open political struggle, declaring their solidarity with the working class. All-Russian student strikes in 1899, 1901 and 1902 had a wide political resonance. In the process of struggle, the formation of future major public and state figures took place.

2) Causes and beginning of the first Russian revolution

The aggravation of contradictions within the country, and the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War led to a serious political crisis. The authorities were unable to change the situation. Causes of the revolution of 1905 - 1907:

· the unwillingness of the highest authorities to carry out liberal reforms, the drafts of which were prepared by Witte, Svyatopolk-Mirsky and others;

• the absence of any rights and the miserable existence of the peasant population, which accounted for more than 70% of the country's population (agrarian issue);

· the absence of social guarantees and civil rights for the working class, the policy of non-intervention of the state in the relationship between the entrepreneur and the worker (the labor issue);

· the policy of forced Russification in relation to non-Russian peoples, who at that time accounted for up to 57% of the country's population (national question);

· unsuccessful development of the situation on the Russian-Japanese front.

The first Russian revolution 1905-1907 was provoked by the events that took place in early January 1905 in St. Petersburg. Here are the main stages of the revolution.

· Winter 1905 - autumn 1905 The execution of a peaceful demonstration on January 9, 1905, called "Bloody Sunday" led to the start of workers' strikes in almost all regions of the country. There were also unrest in the army and navy. One of the important episodes of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. there was a rebellion on the cruiser "Prince Potemkin Tauride", which occurred on June 14, 1905. During the same period, the movement of workers intensified, the peasant movement became more active.

· Autumn 1905 This period is the highest point of the revolution. The all-Russian October strike, started by the printers' trade union, was supported by many other trade unions. The tsar issues a manifesto on the granting of political freedoms and the creation of the State Duma as a legislative body. After Nicholas 2 granted the right to freedom of assembly, speech, conscience, press, the Union of October 17 and the constitutional democratic party, as well as the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, announce the end of the revolution.

· December 1905 The radical wing of the RSDLP supports an armed uprising in Moscow. On the streets - fierce barricade battles (Presnya). On December 11, the regulation on elections to the 1st State Duma is published.

· 1906 - the first half of 1907 Decline in revolutionary activity. Start of work of the 1st State Duma (with a Cadet majority). In February 1907, the 2nd State Duma was convened (it was leftist in composition), but after 3 months it was dissolved. During this period, strikes and strikes continue, but gradually the government's control over the country is restored.

3) Manifesto of October 17, 1905 (October Manifesto) is a legislative act developed by the Supreme Power of the Russian Empire in order to put an end to riots and strikes in the country.

The manifesto was drafted by order Nicholas 2 in the shortest possible time and became a response to the ongoing strikes that have been taking place throughout the country since October 12. The author of the Manifesto was S. Witte, the full name of the document is "The Highest Manifesto on the improvement of the state order."

The main essence and purpose of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905 is to give civil rights to the striking workers and fulfill a number of their demands in order to stop the uprising. The manifesto became a necessary measure.

The manifesto became one of the most notable events of the first Russian revolutions of 1905-1907. By the beginning of the 20th century, the country was in a rather deplorable state: there was an industrial decline, the economy was in a state of crisis, the public debt continued to grow, and lean years caused mass starvation in the country. Abolition of serfdom in the second half of the 19th century, strongly influenced the economy, but the current system of government in the country could not adequately respond to changes.

Hard-pressed peasants and workers, who could not feed themselves and, moreover, had limited civil rights, demanded reforms. Distrust of the actions of Emperor Nicholas 2 led to the growth of revolutionary sentiment and the popularization of the slogan "Down with the autocracy."

The trigger at the beginning of the revolution was the events "Bloody Sunday" when the imperial troops shot down a peaceful demonstration of workers on January 9, 1905. Riots, strikes and riots began all over the country - people demanded that the sole power be taken away from the emperor and given to the people.

In October, the strikes reached their peak, more than 2 million people were on strike in the country, pogroms and bloody clashes were regularly held.

The government tried to somehow cope with the riots by issuing various decrees. In February 1905, two documents are published simultaneously, which contradict each other in their content:

· A decree allowing the population to submit for consideration documents on changing and improving the state system;

· A decree proclaiming the inviolability of autocracy.

On the one hand, the government gave citizens the freedom to express their will, but in fact this freedom was fictitious, since the right to make a decision still remained with the emperor, and the power of the monarchy in Russia could not be legally reduced. The demonstrations continued.

In May 1905, a new project was submitted to the Duma for consideration, which provided for the creation in Russia of a single legislative body that would allow taking into account the interests of the people in making important decisions for the country. The government did not support the project and tried to change its content in favor of the autocracy.

In October, the riots reached their peak, and Nicholas 2 was forced to make peace with the people. The result of this decision was the Manifesto of 1905, which laid the foundation for a new state structure - a bourgeois constitutional monarchy.

The main provisions of the October Manifesto were:

· The Tsar's Manifesto granted freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and the creation of unions and public organizations;

· Broader segments of the population could now participate in the elections - the suffrage appeared in those estates that had never had it before. Thus, practically all citizens could now vote;

· The Manifesto obligated to consider and approve all bills in advance through the State Duma. From now on, the sole power of the emperor weakened, a new, more perfect legislative body began to form.

Results and Significance of the October Manifesto

The adoption of such a document was the first attempt in the history of Russia by the state to give the people more civil rights and freedoms. In fact, the Manifesto not only gave suffrage to all citizens, it proclaimed certain democratic freedoms that were necessary for Russia's transition to a new type of government.

With the introduction of the Manifesto, the legislative right from the sole (only the emperor had it) was now distributed between the emperor and the legislative body - the State Duma. A parliament was established, without whose decision no decree could come into force. However, Nicholas did not want to lose power so easily, so the autocrat reserved the right to dissolve the State Duma at any time, using the right of Veto.

The changes made by the Manifesto to the basic laws of the Russian Empire actually became the beginning of the first Russian constitution.

The right to freedom of speech and assembly has led to the rapid growth of various organizations and unions throughout the country.

Unfortunately, the Manifesto was only a temporary agreement between the peasantry and the Emperor and did not last long. In 1917 a new revolution and autocracy was overthrown.

4) The birth of Russian parliamentarism: the first state dumas

The beginning of Russian parliamentarianism was laid by the famous Manifesto of October 17, 1905, written by S.Yu. Witte and signed by Nicholas II. This Manifesto can be considered a kind of an imposed constitution, in which, along with the presence of granted political freedoms, and promising "unshakable foundations of civil freedom", there was a provision for convening the State Duma as a representative legislative institution with limited rights. On December 11, 1905, at the height of the Moscow armed uprising, a law on elections to the State Duma was issued.

The law preserved the 58 curial system. The elections were not universal. Having recognized legislative rights for the State Duma, the autocracy sought to limit them. By the Rules of March 8, 1906, a significant part of the state budget was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the Duma. The emperor retained full power over the power ministries, and the foreign affairs department. In the break between sessions, he could issue laws, which then had to be approved in the Duma. The First State Duma worked from April 27 to July 8, 1906. 478 deputies worked in the Duma. Of these: 179 - Cadets, 16 Octobrists, 63 autonomists, 105 - non-party, 97 - Trudoviks, 18 Social Democrats.

Cadet S.A. Muromtsev was elected Chairman of the First Duma. The central issue that became the subject of discussion was the agrarian question. It was this question that caused a crisis in the work of the Duma, and it was dissolved. The Second State Duma was convened in the midst of the recession of the revolution and functioned from February 20 to June 2, 1907. In its composition, this Duma is even more left-wing than the first. This was due to the active participation of socialist parties in the Duma elections. Of the 518 deputies who participated in the work of the Duma, there were 65 Social Democrats, 37 Socialist-Revolutionaries, 16 People's Socialists, 104 Trudoviks, 98 Cadets, 54 Rightists and Octobrists, 76 Nationalists, etc. The central question of the second State Duma was the same agrarian question.

The Rights and the Octobrists defended Stolypin's project for resolving the agrarian question. Opinions on this burning problem in a thought were divided. Seeing that the left part of the Duma was set up for a revolutionary method of solving the agrarian question and was not capable of conducting “organic work,” the autocracy on June 3, 1907, dissolved the Duma, while publishing a new electoral law.

5) The results and significance of the revolution

The result of the revolution of 1905-1907, which bore a bourgeois-democratic character, was a series of serious transformations, such as the formation of the State Duma. Political parties were given the right to act legally. The situation of the peasants improved, as redemption payments were canceled, and they were granted the right to free movement and choice of place of residence. But they didn't own the land. The workers won the right to legally form trade unions, and the length of the working day in factories and factories was reduced. Part of the workers received voting rights. National politics became softer. However, the most important significance of the revolution of 1905-1907. is to change the worldview of people, which paved the way for further revolutionary changes in the country.

Seminar №11

1) Russia in World War I

By the beginning of the 20th century, two opposing alliances had formed in the world. Entente, which included Russia, England and France and the Triple Alliance, which included Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary. The First World War was the result of contradictions between these two blocs. They were based on the conflict between Germany and England, which had not only economic, but also colonial claims to each other. However, France also had territorial claims against Germany due to the torn away of Lorraine and Alsace and claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife on June 25, 1914 in Sarajevo. The killer, Gavrilo Princip, was captured. But, between Austria and Serbia, a conflict has already flared up.

Russia supported Serbia in World War I. Accordingly, Austria-Hungary was supported by Germany. Soon, on August 19, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. This step was a response to the beginning of the mobilization of troops on the territory of the Russian Empire.

On European territory, 2 fronts were opened. Russian - East and West on the territory of Belgium and France. But, Russia entered the war without completely completing the rearmament of the army. Nevertheless, the patriotic upsurge in society made it possible to achieve some success. Under Lodz and Warsaw, the Russian troops against the German troops were quite successful.

In 1914, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance. This seriously complicated the situation for Russia. The troops needed ammunition. The complete helplessness of the allies only aggravated the situation.

Germany concentrated its actions on the Eastern Front in 1915. During the spring-summer offensive of the German troops, all the gains of the previous year were lost by Russia, and also, it partially lost the territories of Ukraine, Western Belarus, the Baltic states, and Poland. After that, German troops were concentrated on the Western Front. Fierce battles went on for the fortress of Verdun. The Russian General Staff, in connection with this, developed a plan for a summer offensive. The offensive was supposed to improve the position of the French and Italian troops.

The troops of General Brusilov made a breakthrough in one of the sectors of the Southwestern Front, which went down in history. This distracted the Austro-Hungarian and German troops and saved France from a brutal defeat at Verdun.

The course of the war was changed by the revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia. Although the Provisional Government proclaimed the slogan "Continuing the war to a victorious end", the offensives in Galicia and Belarus were unsuccessful. And the German troops managed to capture Riga and the Moonsund archipelago. On October 26, 1917, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a Decree on Peace, after which negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk on October 26.

The delegation of the Russian side was headed by Trotsky. She rejected the demands put forward by the Germans and left the city. However, on February 18, the new delegation was forced to sign a peace treaty on even tougher terms. Russia in World War 1 lost vast territories: Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and part of Belarus. The presence of Soviet troops was ruled out in the Baltic States, Ukraine, Finland. Russia was also obliged to hand over to Germany the ships of the Black Sea Fleet, demobilize the army and pay an indemnity. But, the Brest Peace was soon annulled.

Defeat in World War I hastened the approach of the revolutionary crisis. Having lost 6 million people in a war that lasted more than two and a half years, Russia was a country with a war-weary people, a ruined economy, fuel and food starvation, an upset financial system and a huge external debt.

The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to the victims of the war. Military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.

A "ministerial leapfrog" began - six months before the start of the revolution, three Chairmen of the Council of Ministers, two ministers of the interior, four ministers of agriculture were replaced. The royal family was dominated by the pernicious influence of G. Rasputin, which caused discontent, both among the liberals and in the upper strata of society. All these facts were the constituent parts of the "crisis of the tops". The inability of the bourgeoisie to govern the country became obvious.

At the beginning of 1917 the level of the strike movement reached a critical point. In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers' and peasants' movement showed the "unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."

On February 14, a demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding that the deputies of the State Duma create a "government of people's salvation." Simultaneously Bolsheviks, calling on the workers to a one-day general strike, brought 90 thousand people to the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of bread cards, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. February 22 Nicholas 2 left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.

The Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries united for the joint leadership of the revolutionary uprising.

With the slogans "Down with the autocracy!", "Down with the war!", "Bread!" The demonstrators moved into the city center. More than 300 thousand people took part in the strike. On February 26, troops opened fire on demonstrators on Nevsky Prospekt.

The success of the revolution began to depend on which side the Petrograd garrison would take. On the morning of February 26, soldiers of the Volynsky, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the rebels, they captured the armory and arsenal.

Political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. By the end of the day, most of the units of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.

The corps directed to suppress the demonstrators under the command of N.I. Ivanov, was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the futility of resistance, on February 28, all other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov surrendered.

Nicholas 2 from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoye Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign the Manifesto on abdication for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alexandrovich Romanov. However, Michael refused the throne, stating that the issue of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.

Together with the abdication, Nicholas 2 signed a decree on the formation of a new government. On March 4, documents on the abdication and transfer of power to the Provisional Government were published. Autocracy in Russia fell.

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917 (November 7-8, New Style). This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

· In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in World War I, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities;

· National conflicts;

The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action;

· The prevalence of socialist ideas in society;

The consignment Bolsheviks made a huge impact on the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the October 25, 1917 revolution, all key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They capture the Winter Palace and arrest the provisional government.

On the evening of October 25, at the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, it was announced that power was transferred to the 2nd Congress of Soviets, and in the localities - to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.

On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council of People's Commissars", which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin(People's Commissar for National Affairs). The “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia” was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

As a result of the October Revolution, Civil War, because of which millions of people died, and emigration to other countries began. The Great October Revolution influenced the subsequent course of events in world history.

5) Formation of a new state

In the autumn of 1917, the political crisis intensified in the country. At the very beginning of September, the Petrograd Soviet adopted a new political course aimed at overthrowing the Provisional Government and seizing power. On October 10, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party decided to prepare an armed uprising.

The Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet organized a Military Revolutionary Committee composed of representatives of the army, trade unions, factory committees, military sections of the Soviets, and so on.

On October 17, the bureau of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (Menshevik-SR) agreed to convene the Second Congress of Soviets. The congress was supposed, according to the Bolsheviks' calculations, to officially recognize and legalize the seizure of power carried out by the combat organizations of the Soviets (the Military Revolutionary Committee, the Red Guard, the workers' militia, parts of the Petrograd garrison).

During the uprising, by October 25, 1917, all key points in Petrograd were occupied by detachments of the Petrograd garrison and the workers' Red Guard.

The Council of People's Commissars was formed, which became the government of Russia.

The Second Congress of Soviets proclaimed the transfer of power in the center and in the localities to the Soviets, recognizing them as the only form of power. The commissars of the Provisional Government were eliminated. The congress elected a new VTsIK (All-Russian Central Executive Committee).

The congress had a constituent character. It created the governing state bodies and adopted the first legal acts that had a constitutional, fundamental significance for the new government: Peace Decree And Land Decree.

The II Congress of Soviets also adopted two appeals: To the citizens of Russia And Workers, soldiers and peasants, which spoke of the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee (an organ of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies), the Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and local Soviets.

The political and legal doctrine of the destruction of the old state was formulated in the political programs of the revolutionary parties long before October 1917. Its practical implementation was sanctioned by a number of acts: the November 1917 Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars on the destruction of estates and civil ranks, the October resolution of the II Congress of Soviets on education in army of revolutionary committees, the January 1918 Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the separation of the Church from the state, etc. First of all, it was supposed to liquidate the repressive and administrative bodies of the old state, while retaining for some time its technical and statistical apparatus.

Many of the provisions formulated in the first decrees and declarations of the new government, in their actions were supposedly calculated for a certain period - until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly.

In late October - early November 1917, opponents of the new regime made attempts to overthrow it. However, the active measures of the WRC prevented their implementation.

The most serious problem for the new government was the Constituent Assembly, the elections to which were scheduled by the Provisional Government for November 12, 1917. Most of the seats were received by representatives of the parties of the left center (Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries).

The position of the Bolshevik Party was as follows: preference was given to a republic of Soviets over a parliamentary republic.

On January 5, 1918, the Constituent Assembly opened. Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee Sverdlov, on behalf of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party, read out the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People, which formulated the main political, social and economic goals of the party: the dictatorship of the proletariat, the nationalization of land, etc.

The Constituent Assembly refused to discuss the document, and the Bolshevik faction left the meeting. The next day, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee issued a Decree on the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly.

After the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies became the only supreme body of power in the country. In parallel with these Soviets, there was a system of Soviets of peasant deputies, who were under the strong political influence of the Socialist-Revolutionaries. In November 1917, the Extraordinary All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasants' Deputies took place, which decided to unite with the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. At the same time, a joint meeting of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Extraordinary All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasants' Deputies took place.

The final unification of the Soviets took place in January 1918 at the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets. During the breaks between sessions of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the highest authority in the country was All-Russian Central Executive Committee(VTsIK). Its structure and work procedure were approved at a meeting of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in early November 1917. At the beginning of its existence, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was a permanent body. Plenary sessions were held at least once every two weeks. Sessions in a narrow composition were convened as needed, at the initiative of party factions or at the request of a group of members of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (at least ten people).

The structure of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included: the presidium, departments and commissions. The presidium consisted of representatives of party factions, prepared materials for the meetings of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, controlled the work of commissions and departments. Its meetings were held two or three times a week.

The organization and conduct of current work (preparation of draft documents, management of lower Soviets, etc.) was carried out by departments of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee: the Military Revolutionary Committee, non-resident, agitation, on the national question, Cossack, etc.

Foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was aimed at establishing official relations with other countries. At the same time, there was a desire to export revolutionary ideas. Realization of the impossibility of an immediate world revolution led the government to focus on strengthening stability within the country.

Already in the early 1920s, Soviet diplomats managed to end the economic blockade of the young state. The Decree on Concessions of the Council of People's Commissars, adopted on November 23, 1920, played a significant role in this. Shortly thereafter, trade agreements were signed with Italy, Norway, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Germany, which was tantamount to the recognition of the USSR in the world.

However, by the end of the 1920s there was a serious complication of the international situation. The Soviet government supported the national liberation movement that had begun in China. And attempts to provide material support to the British workers who had begun to strike led to a serious complication of relations with Great Britain. Religious leaders were also negative towards the young state.

In subsequent years, the policy of the USSR corresponded to a rather complex international situation. Already in 1933, after Hitler came to power in Germany, the leaders of the USSR began to express interest in the formation of a serious system of collective security in Europe. In 1934, the USSR received membership in the League of Nations. In 1935, an agreement was concluded on mutual assistance in the event of aggression with France.

In 1936, fascism began its march across Europe. At the same time, the situation in the Far East remained quite tense. During the period 1938-1939. there have been numerous clashes on about. Hasan, r. Khalkhin Gol and the territory of Mongolia with units of the Kwantung Army of Japan. As a result, the USSR managed to achieve certain territorial concessions.

Since attempts to create a collective security system in Europe were not successful, the Soviet government approved a new course - towards rapprochement with Germany. At the same time, the most important goal of Soviet diplomacy was the desire to avoid the premature start of a military clash.

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on non-aggression between the USSR and Germany was signed in August 1939. A secret protocol was attached to it on the division of the zones of influence of Germany and the USSR. Poland went to the German sphere of influence. The USSR also received Northern Bukovina, Western Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic States, Eastern Poland. During the same period, diplomatic relations with France and England were severed.

September 1, 1939 Germany attacked Poland. This day became the start date of World War II. It is worth noting that on September 28 of the same year, an agreement was signed between Germany and the USSR “On Friendship and Borders”. And on November 30, in an effort to push the state border further from Leningrad, the USSR began a war with Finland. Although its goal was achieved, the Soviet-Finnish war inflicted serious financial damage on the USSR. These actions of the USSR were condemned by the world community and led to the exclusion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations.

At the end of World War II, the world was split into two opposing camps. By the 50s. the ideological dictate of the CPSU has somewhat weakened. In May 1955, in opposition to NATO, the Warsaw Pact Organization was created. It included the USSR, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Albania, Bulgaria.

Gradually, the rapprochement between the USSR and China began. The Soviet Union undertook to withdraw its troops from Port Arthur and renounced all interests in Manchuria. Nevertheless, China's refusal to deploy Soviet military bases on its territory led to an aggravation of relations. It is worth noting the erection of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1962, which became a landmark event for the whole world. The western and eastern parts of Berlin were separated for decades. The reason for the construction of the wall was the US calls for the unification of Germany and the refusal to recognize the GDR as an independent state.

However, the most acute in history was the Caribbean crisis of 1962, provoked by an attempt by the USSR to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba. It was overcome thanks to the reasonable and balanced actions of the heads of the USSR and the USA. Soon, relations between the countries heated up again due to the entry of US troops into Vietnam.

It should be noted that the arms race became a heavy burden for the economy of the USSR. In 1959, at the UN Assembly, he proposed a treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.

The reduction of tension between West and East became the main problem for the next three decades. This was facilitated by the conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and the United States on the limitation of missile defense systems and a quadripartite agreement on West Berlin. In 1972, the FRG declared its recognition of the GDR. Both states received UN membership.

On May 26, 1972, an agreement was signed to limit the number of offensive and submarine-launched OSV-1 missiles. And later, in 1978, - OSV-2. The volume of trade between the USA and the USSR also increased (8 times). Gradually, rapprochement was also achieved with other capitalist countries, in particular with England and France. An important milestone in the history of international relations was the CSCE (Pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation), held in Helsinki in 1975. Despite all diplomatic efforts in 1979, tension in international relations increased again: the USSR sent its troops to Afghanistan.

Speaking about the foreign policy of the USSR, it is worth mentioning the territorial conflict with China, which led to serious clashes on the Damansky Peninsula (1969).

In the second half of the 1980s, serious changes took place both in the domestic and foreign policy of the Soviet Union. People with new thinking got power. M.S., who came to power at that time, Gorbachev proclaimed the priority of universal human values ​​and the rejection of the most important postulate of the Soviet ideology about the split of the world into two opposing camps. Summits began to be held regularly.

Relations with China were also normalized after a Soviet delegation's visit to Beijing in 1989. In the same year, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was completed. After the legal dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In July 1991, Gorbachev and Bush signed an agreement on the limitation of offensive weapons.

But the rejection of the use of force in international relations led to the rapid overthrow of the communist regimes in Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the GDR. 1989 was marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall. This event had a huge resonance all over the world. The GDR, after multi-party elections in 1990, became part of the FRG.

Trust in the USSR and the country's leader Gorbachev increased significantly. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. However, one cannot fail to say that the influence of the USSR in the world has significantly decreased.

Russia's foreign policy in the early 20th century was aimed at establishing official relations with other countries. At the same time, illegally, he sought to export revolutionary ideas. Realization of the impossibility of an immediate world revolution led the government to focus on strengthening stability within the country.

Already in the early 1920s, Soviet diplomats managed to end the economic blockade of the young state. The Decree on Concessions of the Council of People's Commissars, adopted on November 23, 1920, played a significant role in this. Shortly thereafter, trade agreements were signed with Italy, Norway, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Germany, which was tantamount to recognition USSR in the world.

However, by the end of the 1920s, a serious complication of the international situation occurred. The Soviet government supported the national liberation movement that had begun in China. And attempts to provide material support to the British workers who had begun to strike led to a serious complication of relations with Great Britain. Religious leaders were also negative towards the young state.

In subsequent years, the policy of the USSR fully corresponded to the rather complicated international situation. Already in 1933, after Hitler came to power in Germany, the leaders of the USSR began to express interest in the formation of a serious system of collective security in Europe. The following year, 1934, the USSR received membership in the League of Nations. Further, in 1935, an agreement was concluded on mutual assistance in case of aggression with France.

In 1936, fascism began its march across Europe. At the same time, the situation in the Far East remained quite tense. In the period 1938 - 1939, there were repeated military clashes on about. Khasan, the Khalkhin Gol River and the territory of Mongolia with parts of the Kwantung Army of Japan. As a result, the USSR managed to achieve certain territorial concessions.

Since attempts to create a collective security system in Europe were not successful, the Soviet government approved a new course - towards rapprochement with Germany. At the same time, the most important goal of Soviet diplomacy was the desire to avoid the premature start of a military clash.

The Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact between the USSR and Germany was signed in August 1939. Also, a secret protocol was attached to the sky on the division of the zones of influence of Germany and the USSR. Poland went to the German sphere of influence. The USSR also received Bad Bukovina, Western Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic States, Eastern Poland. During the same period, diplomatic relations with France and England were severed.

September 1, 1939 Germany attacked Poland. This day was the start date Second World War. It is worth noting that on September 28 of the same year, an agreement was signed between Germany and the USSR "on friendship and borders." And on November 30, in an effort to push the state border further from Leningrad, the USSR began a war with Finland. Despite the fact that its goal was achieved, the Soviet-Finnish war inflicted serious financial damage on the USSR. These actions of the USSR were condemned by the world community and led to the exclusion of the Soviet Union from the League of Nations.

At the end of World War II, the world was split into two opposing camps. By the 1950s, the ideological dictate of the CPSU had somewhat weakened. In May 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was created as a counterweight to NATO. The USSR, the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Albania, Bulgaria entered it.

Gradually, the rapprochement between the USSR and China began. The Soviet Union undertook the obligation to withdraw troops from Port Arthur, to abandon all interests in Manchuria. Nevertheless, China's refusal to deploy Soviet military bases on its territory led to an aggravation of relations. It is worth noting the erection of the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1962, which became a landmark event for the whole world. The western and eastern parts of Berlin were separated for decades. The reason for the construction of the wall was the US calls for the unification of Germany and the refusal to recognize the GDR as an independent state.

However, the most acute in history was the Caribbean crisis of 1962, provoked by an attempt by the USSR to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba. It was overcome thanks to the reasonable and balanced actions of the heads of the USSR and the USA. Soon, relations between the countries heated up again due to the entry of US troops into Vietnam.

It should be noted that the arms race became a heavy burden for the economy of the USSR. In 1959, at the UN Assembly in 1959, Khrushchev submitted a proposal to conclude a treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.

The reduction of tension between West and East became the main problem for the next three decades. This was facilitated by the conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and the United States on the limitation of missile defense systems and a quadripartite agreement on West Berlin. In 1972, the FRG declared its recognition of the GDR. Both states received UN membership.

On May 26, 1972, an agreement was signed to limit the number of offensive and submarine-launched OSV-1 missiles. And later, in 1978 - OSV-2. The volume of trade between the USA and the USSR also increased (8 times). Gradually, rapprochement was also achieved with other capitalist countries, in particular with England and France. An important milestone in the history of international relations was the CSCE (Pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation), held in Helsinki in 1975. Despite all diplomatic efforts in 1979, tension in international relations increased again - the USSR sent its troops to Afghanistan.

Speaking about the foreign policy of the USSR, it is worth mentioning the territorial conflict with China, which led to serious clashes on the Damansky Peninsula (1969).

In the second half of the 1980s, serious changes took place both in the domestic and foreign policy of the Soviet Union. People with new thinking got power. M. S. Gorbachev, who came to power at that time, proclaimed the priority of universal human values ​​and the rejection of the most important postulate of Soviet ideology about the split of the world into 2 opposing camps. Summits began to be held regularly.

Relations with China were also normalized after a Soviet delegation's visit to Beijing in 1989. In the same 1989, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was completed. After the legal dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In July 1991 Gorbachev and Bush signed a treaty on the limitation of offensive weapons.

But, the rejection of the use of force in international relations led to the rapid overthrow of the communist regimes in Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the GDR. 1989 was marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall. This event had a huge resonance all over the world. The GDR, after multi-party elections in 1990, became part of the FRG.

Trust in the USSR and the country's leader Gorbachev increased significantly. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. However, one cannot fail to say that the influence of the USSR in the world has significantly decreased.