The building of the Roman army. The Roman army: numbers, ranks, units, victories. The structure of the army of ancient Rome

It has become traditional. The army lost its flexibility, but in the absence of serious external enemies, this did not become a problem: the Roman Empire sought to defeat the enemy in one decisive battle. Therefore, during the hostilities, she moved in a dense army column. This arrangement simplified the task of deploying troops to form before battle.

The traditional basis of the Roman order of battle was legions, consisting of ten cohorts, up to about 500 people each. Since the reign of Octavian Augustus, the acies duplex system has been used - two lines of five cohorts. The depth of the formation of the cohort was equal to four warriors, and the legion - eight. This formation ensured good stability and effectiveness of troops in battle. The old, three-line system (acies triplex) fell out of use, since during the years of the empire, Rome did not have an enemy with a highly organized army against which it could be needed. The structure of the legion could be closed or open - this made it possible, depending on the situation, to occupy more or less space on the battlefield.

An important aspect of building a legion was the protection of the flank - a traditionally vulnerable spot of any army at all times. To make the flanking bypass difficult for the enemy, it was possible to stretch the formation or hide behind natural obstacles - a river, a forest, a ravine. The best troops, both legions and auxiliary, were placed by the Roman generals on the right flank. From this side, the warriors were not covered with shields, which means they became more vulnerable to enemy weapons. Flank protection, besides practical, had a great moral effect: a soldier who knew that he was not in danger of outflanking fought better.

The formation of the legion in the II century. AD

According to Roman law, only citizens of Rome could serve in the legion. Auxiliary units were recruited from among free people who wanted to obtain citizenship. In the eyes of the commander, they were of less value than the legionnaires, due to the difficulty of recruiting reinforcements, and therefore were used for cover, and were also the first to engage in battle with the enemy. Since they were lighter armed, their mobility was higher than that of the legionnaires. They could start a battle, and in case of a threat of defeat, retreat under the cover of the legion and rebuild.

The Roman cavalry also belonged to the auxiliary troops, with the exception of the small (only 120 people) cavalry of the legion. They were recruited from a variety of peoples, so the structure of the cavalry could be different. The cavalry played the role of skirmishers of the battle, scouts, could be used as a shock unit. Moreover, all these roles were often assigned to the same unit. The most common type of Roman cavalry was the contari, armed with a long pike and dressed in chain mail.

The Roman cavalry was well trained, but small in number. This prevented her from truly effectively using her in battle. During I – II centuries AD, the Romans constantly increased the number of equestrian units. In addition, at this time, new varieties of them appeared. So, in the time of Augustus, horse archers appeared, and later, under the emperor Hadrian, cataphractaria. The first detachments of the cataphracts were created on the basis of the experience of the wars with the Sarmatians and Parthians and were shock units. It is difficult to say how effective it is, since there is little data on their participation in battles.

The general principles of preparing the army of the Roman Empire for battle could change. So, for example, if the enemy dispersed and evaded a general battle, then the Roman commander could send part of the legions and auxiliary troops to devastate enemy territory or capture fortified settlements. These actions could lead to the surrender of the enemy even before the big battle. In a similar way, even during the time of the Republic, Julius Caesar acted against the Gauls. More than 150 years later, a similar tactic was chosen by the emperor Trajan, who captured and plundered the capital of the Dacians, Sarmisegetuza. The Romans, by the way, were one of the ancient peoples who organized the process of robbery.

Structure of the Roman Century

If the enemy did accept the battle, then the Roman commander had another advantage: the temporary legion camps were an excellent defense, so the Roman commander himself chose when to start the battle. In addition, the camp made it possible to wear down the enemy. For example, the future emperor Tiberius, when conquering the region of Pannonia, seeing that hordes of his opponents entered the battlefield at dawn, gave the order not to leave the camp. The Pannonians were forced to spend the day in the pouring rain. Then Tiberius attacked the tired barbarians and defeated them.

In 61 A.D. commander Suetonius Paulin entered the decisive battle with the troops of Boudicca, the leader of the rebellious Brittish tribe of the Icenes. The legion and auxiliary troops, about 10,000 in total, were cornered by the superior forces of the enemy and forced to fight. To protect the flanks and rear, the Romans took up a position between the wooded hills. The Britons were forced to launch a frontal strike. After repelling the first onslaught, Suetonius Paulin lined up the legionnaires in wedges and fell upon the Icemen. Correct tactics and superiority of the Romans in weapons brought victory to Rome. A noteworthy point: usually the legions tried to protect, but due to their small forces, it was they who endured the brunt of this battle. Uncharacteristic moment for Rome.

In 84 CE, fighting at the Graupei Mountains, Gnei Julius Agricola lined up his forces in such a way that the result was a well-echeloned defense. In the center was the auxiliary infantry, covered from the flanks by three thousand horsemen. The legions were located in front of the camp rampart. On the one hand, because of this, it was the auxiliary troops who had to fight, "Without the shedding of Roman blood"... On the other hand, if they were defeated, then Agricola would have troops to rely on in this case. The auxiliary troops fought in an open formation to avoid flanking bypass. The commander even had a reserve: "Four cavalry detachments, reserved ... in case of possible surprises in the battle."

Battle with the Dacians (Trajan's Column)

Lucius Flavius ​​Arrian used deep separation of troops over a wide area of ​​the terrain during battles against nomads in 135 AD. In front he placed detachments of Gauls and Germans, behind them - foot archers, then four legions. With them was the emperor Hadrian, with cohorts of the Praetorian guard and selected cavalry. Then followed four more legions and lightly armed troops with horse archers. The formation provided the Romans with stability in battle and a timely approach of reinforcements. Arrian, incidentally, built the legions in a phalanx of two lines of five cohorts (eight men deep, as described earlier). Archers served as the ninth row of the formation. Auxiliary troops were stationed on the flanks on the hills. And the weak Roman cavalry, unable to resist the nomad Alans, took refuge behind the infantry.

What was weak in the Roman army at the time was tactical maneuvering. It was used either by outstanding commanders, or when there was no other way out, for example, due to the numerical superiority of the enemy. At the same time, the interaction of units in battle has become more difficult due to the increase in the number of their varieties.

Sources and Literature:

1. Arrian. Tactical art / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefyodkina. M., 2004.
2. Arrian. Disposition against the Alans / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefyodkina. M., 2004.
3. Vegetius Flavius ​​Renatus. Summary military affairs / Per. from lat. S. P. Kondratyev. - VDI, 1940, no.
4. Tacitus Cornelius. Annals. Small pieces. History / Edition prepared by A.S.Bobovich, Ya.M. Borovsky, G. S. Knabe et al. M., 2003.
5. Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War / Per. from Greek Ya.L. Chertka. SPb., 1900.
6. Caesar Guy Julius. Notes of Julius Caesar / Per. and comments. M. M. Pokrovsky; Guy Sallust Crisp. Works / Transl., Article and comments. V.O. Gorenshtein. M., 2001.
7. Golyzhenkov I.A.Army of Imperial Rome. I – 2nd century. AD M., 2000.
8. Le Boeck J. Roman army of the early empire / Per. with fr. M., 2001.
9. Rubtsov S.M. Legions of Rome on the Lower Danube. M., 2003.
10. Verry J. Wars of Antiquity from the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Illustrated history / Per. from English M., 2004.

This issue is based on Razin's three-volume Military History and the book On Seven Hills by M.Yu. Herman, BP Seletsky, YP Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the manufacture of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier's boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and a different structure. With the improvement of the art of war, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome, there was universal military service. In the army, they began to serve as young men from the age of 17 to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Those who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. The terms of service have also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property that was estimated at no less than 100,000 copper aces, the 2nd - at least 75,000 aces, the 3rd - 50,000 aces, the 4th - 25,000 aces, 5 -mu - 11.500 asses. All the poor were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, in total 193 centuries. Lightly armed soldiers were used as carts for servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve, as they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the soldier, but also withheld from him from the salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. The salary was sharply increased, and the proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required a lot of soldiers, changes in weapons, formation, training. The army became hired. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla (1st century BC) came to power.

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. all the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in subjection, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the “divide and conquer” law.

And this required numerous troops. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions, in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;

b) the Italian allies and the allied cavalry (after granting the Italians the rights of citizenship, which joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. In the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the line of the legion.

Consul Mark Claudius changed the formation of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuria (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked in front of the legion in the loose side and struck up a battle. In case of failure, it retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. There were 1,200 of them in total.

Gastats (from the Latin “gasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in a maniple. Second line. Triarii (third) - 60 people in maniple. Third line. The Triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the Triarii."

Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the century of gastats or principles, and there were 30 people in the triarii in the century.

The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 turm. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the application of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines and, if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, thus a break in the battle line was obtained, the maniple from the second line was in a hurry to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line was taken by the maniple from the third line ... During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans moved to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, represented a legion in miniature.

Command staff of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was elected, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were assigned to separate units of the army.

Separate legions were commanded by the stands. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then yielding their place to the second pair, etc. Centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centurion was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right to be a soldier for wrongdoing. They carried with them a grapevine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus told about one centurion whom the whole army knew by the nickname: "Pass another!" After the reform of Mary, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the Triarii gained great influence. They were invited to the council of war.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, trumpets, horns. The banners were in the form of a spear with a crossbar on which a cloth of one-color material hung. Manipulas, and after the reform of the Maria cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, wild boar ...). If the unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flag staff; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In a difficult moment, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to induce the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.

The first thing that the soldiers were taught was to follow the badge, the banner. The standard-bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square cloth, laced to a horizontal crossbar, fixed on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among the Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service is a quaestor in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each century had its own foragers. Special officer as captenarmus in modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave salaries to soldiers, priests-fortune-tellers, military police officials, spies, trumpeters-signalists.

All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, they sounded a trumpet-futsin. In the cavalry, a special long pipe was used, bent at the end. The signal to gather the troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.

Training in the Roman army

The training of the fighters of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted in teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill the gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into a common mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than training a warrior who fought in a phalanx.

The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The emergence of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his companions, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only the cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 - Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquat, during reconnaissance without the order of the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with delight. However, the consul condemned him to death. The verdict was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bunches of rods (fascias, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was chopped off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were whipped and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at the post, he was put on trial and then stoned to death with sticks and stones. For minor offenses, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced wages, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.

But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase their salary, awarded with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, brastets. The rewarding was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (phalers) with the image of the face of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. Crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of the enemy fortress. Crown with two golden noses of ships, - to the soldier who first entered the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to a commander who lifted the siege from a city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The Triumphant rode in a gilded chariot in a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was pulled by four snow-white horses. Before the chariot, they carried the spoils of war and led the prisoners. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the triumphant. Triumphal songs were played. Every now and then there were shouts of "Io!" and "Triumph!" (“Io!” Corresponds to our “Hurray!”). A slave who stood behind the triumphant in a chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and so that he would not be arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, in love with him, following him, joked and laughed at his bald head.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, was dragging the fortress behind them. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp began immediately. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was thrown unfinished. Even broken for a short time, it differed from the one-day one by more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some of the Roman tagges. From the Roman camps, Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew up ... The cities, at the end of which there is "... chester" or "... castra", arose on the site of the Roman camps. "Castrum" - camp.

The site for the camp was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. There should have been water and pasture nearby for transporting cattle, fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was outlined. It is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. Here the commander's tents, altars, a tribune for addressing the commander's soldiers were set up; here the trial and the gathering of the army took place. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left - the legates. The tents of the stands were placed on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the whole camp, the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. There were gates and towers at the ends of the streets. They were equipped with ballistae and catapults (the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile, ballista of the metal nucleus, catapult - arrows). On either side were the legionary tents in regular rows. From the camp, the troops could march without hustle and bustle. Each centuria occupied ten tents, and maniples - twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof and were covered with leather or coarse linen. The area of ​​the tent is from 2.5 to 7 sq. m. The decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the praetorian guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a 6-meter high rampart. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the tents of the legionnaires. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up with several counter-roll lines and obstacles made of pointed stakes, wolf pits, trees with pointed branches and intertwined among themselves, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionaries since ancient times. Under the emperors were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings were of the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes they were painted.

In the time of Mary, the banners were silver, in the time of the empire, gold. The cloths were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 - Weapon.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. One-edged swords, handles were made of bone, wood, metal.

Pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly round to round with a cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the rod were made of soft forged iron, before iron they were made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear biting into the shield pulled him to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and the rod were bent.

Rice. 8 - Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC NS. Scutums were made of light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and on top with bull skin. Along the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the stripes were laid with a cross through the center of the shield. In the center there was a pointed badge (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal brace, the name of the owner and the number of the century or cohort were written. The leather could be dyed: red or black. The hand was pushed into the belt loop and taken by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet is earlier in the center, later on the left. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed the place where the feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration of the helmet was the crest. On the crown of the head, the Roman helmet had a ring through which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or at the waist, as is the case with a modern helmet.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all the legionnaires also began to wear pants. Part of the velits were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites might have swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be any, except for purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

Fig 12 - Centurion.

The centurions had silvered helmets, had no shields, and carried a sword with right side... They had leggings and, as a distinctive mark on their armor, on their chests had an image of a vine rolled into a ring. At the time of the manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of the centuri, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all the legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know the stepladders. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 volumes, Moscow, 1987

2. On the seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. Herman, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartacus. Rafaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of Ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Military History Commission Library - 44, 1989

Ancient roman army(lat. exercitus, Early - classis)- one of the aspects of the history of Ancient Rome, deeply studied, mainly in specialized circles. The Roman army became a decisive factor in the formation of the power of its state.

1. Army and state in ancient Rome

When we talk about Ancient Rome, images associated with the Roman army spontaneously pop up in my head: be it the legendary victorious legions of Caesar, the brilliant metropolitan praetorian conspirators, or the tired auxilia border guards from the limes. Indeed, the army of Ancient Rome is inseparable from the state. It is not only its obligatory element, support, "power appendage". The army is the basis of the life of Rome, no matter what historical period from the early Republic to the late Empire we are considering. Roman statehood, in its deepest essence, was itself built according to the army principle: the most severe discipline and clear regulation both in the administrative-economic and judicial-legal life of Roman society. According to many Western scholars, the militarization of society in ancient Rome, especially in the early period, was comprehensive and expressed much stronger, even in comparison with Sparta. No wonder the Roman term "Centuria" (lat. centuria- "Hundred") meant both an electoral-territorial unit and a military organizational unit. Soldiers and officers were everything to Rome: foreign policy military force, law enforcement forces, firefighters, minor officials, engineers and builders of roads, fortresses, aqueducts, jailers and even caretakers in schools and temples! The army, administration and state represent in ancient Rome, as it were, a single whole. Thus, the study of the ancient Roman state is impossible without a detailed study of its army - and vice versa.

2. The military organization of the Etruscan-Roman army of the Tsarist period

Considering oldest period Roman history, it should be noted that this period is mostly legendary and we do not have any reliable information about the Rome of the ancient kings. However, as Hans Lelbrück writes in his History of Military Art in the Framework of Political History:

"But regarding the development of Roman state law and military affairs, among the Roman lovers of antiquity lived a tradition that was controlled by modernity itself, and therefore never drowned in fictions and, so to speak, historically disciplined even the legend."

Roman army at the beginning of the 6th century BC ... was probably a typical Etruscan army. Speaking about this period, historians use the term "Etruscan-Roman army". Under the first Etruscan king, Tarquinius the Ancient, such an army consisted of three parts: the Etruscans, who formed a phalanx like the ancient Greek, the Romans and Latins, the latter preferred to fight in a free formation and were used on the flanks. Then, according to Libya, King Servius Tullius carried out a reform of the army, dividing all residents into centuria according to four categories (depending on the level of equipment), thus introducing a property qualification.

• The third category had the same equipment as the second, with the exception of the leggings. It is possible that these units were already fighting according to the Italian system.

• The fourth category consisted of 20 light infantry centuri - spearmen and javelin throwers.

When the need arose to convene an army, each centuria set out the amount that was necessary in accordance with the size of the army. The poorest population was exempted from military service. The army was divided into two parts, serving according to age. Veterans, warriors 45-60 years old, made up the garrisons, as in Greece, and the young ones participated in military campaigns. Only those persons who took part in 20 military campaigns during service in the infantry or in 10 campaigns during service in the cavalry were exempted from military service. Evasion of military service was punished very severely, up to and including sale into slavery.

3. Roman legion of the early republic period

At the end of the VI century. BC That is, after the fall of the tsarist power and the establishment of the republic, two military leaders came to replace the tsar - praetors (from lat. praeire- "Go ahead"). All Roman citizens from 17 to 45 (46) years old were considered liable for military service and were part of the legion. Legion (from lat. Legere- Select, collect) originally meant the entire Roman army.

The early Republican legion consisted of 4,200 infantry and 300 horsemen. This army was not yet professional. A warrior was drafted into the army only when necessary. When hostilities ceased, the army was disbanded. The warrior himself was supposed to provide himself with equipment, which led to a wide variety of weapons and armor.

Later, efforts were made to introduce uniform weapons and protection. A new gradation of the Roman legion was introduced into categories not only on the basis of property qualifications, but also on the basis of different age categories. Young and poor soldiers were instructed to have a sword, 6 darts each, a bow with a supply of arrows and a sling for throwing stones. Such light infantry was called "command" (from lat. Velites-Cloth, that is, "dressed in embroidered shirts"). These warriors did not have armor at all, they were protected only by a helmet and a light shield and were used as skirmishers. At first, they were recruited to command separately from the legion and were not included in its combat crew.

The next group of warriors in terms of age and property status was called gastat (from lat. Hasta- Spear), lat. hastati- "Spearmen". They were armed with a sword, heavy (Gasta) and light throwing (pilum) spears and full protective weapons. The third group of "most prosperous age" - principles (lat. principes), They were armed in the same way as the Gastat, but they were already experienced fighters and in battle were located behind the ranks of the Gastat in order to come to their aid through gaps in the ranks.

The oldest and most experienced veterans in battles were called triarii - (lat. triarii) - They had a long spear instead of Pilum. In battle, they were built by principles and constituted the last reserve of the legion. The expression "It came to Triarius" has since become a household name.

The Romans paid great attention to the selection and training of command personnel. The supreme command staff was represented by six military tribunes - the commanders of the tribes. The tribe is an analogue of the Greek phyla, also a dual administrative-military unit, which includes four centuries. The tribunes were elected by the popular assembly from both the patricians and the plebeians. The centuria was commanded by a centurion, who was appointed from among the most distinguished soldiers. The centurion had disciplinary authority in his century and enjoyed great prestige.

Thus, we can conclude that in its initial period, the legion was both organizational and tactical, and in the opinion of Hans Delbruck, also a military-administrative army unit. However, over time, thanks to the successful conquest, Rome no longer lacks one legion to defend its possessions. The number of legions is growing inexorably. With the enthusiasm for more and more territories, the struggle between the old patrician clans and the plebeians intensifies. In 367 BC. The laws of Licinius and Sextius were adopted to abolish the positions of military praetors, instead of them two consuls were to be elected, including one of the plebeians (the position of praetor was assigned to the masters of the second category, subordinate to the consuls and was in charge of city justice). Under normal circumstances, each consul had two legions at his disposal.

4. The military organization of the army of Ancient Rome after the reform of Camille

In the second half of the 4th century BC. the political victories of the plebeians led to a significant expansion of the contingents from which the army was recruited. Military reform became inevitable. Such a reform was Camille's reform. A salary was established for the soldiers, on account of which uniforms, weapons and food were issued. This equalized the position of the haves and have-nots warriors, which served as the impetus for the introduction of monotonous weapons. The uniform armament, in turn, made it possible to reorganize the legion, making it more homogeneous and functional. A new main army organizational and tactical unit appeared - a manipula (from lat. Manipulus- "Handful"). Each legion was divided into 10 maniples, the maniple consisted of 120 heavily armed legionaries and was divided into two centuries. The centurion of the first century was also the commander of the maniple. The tactical formation of ranks in maniples behind three rows - gastat, principles, Triaria - remained, but now the legion became more maneuverable in battle and could split along the front, while maintaining order. The Legion was superior, and the maniple the inferior tactical unit. Thus, the structure of the Roman army remained based on a joint organizational and tactical division.

The entire Roman army during this period consisted of the aforementioned two consular armies of two legions each. Sometimes the armies were united. Then during one day one of the consuls commanded all four legions, and the next day another.

The Roman army was strengthened by the so-called "allies" - the troops of the conquered Italics who did not have Roman citizenship. The allies were required to deploy an auxiliary military force. Usually for one Roman legion, the Allies put up 5,000 infantry and 900 horsemen, who were supported at their own expense. Allied troops lined up on the flanks of the Roman legions in units of 500 people, such units were called "Cohort" (from lat. Cohors- "Retinue"). The cohorts were subordinated to the Roman high command, the composition of the junior commanders was determined by the allies themselves.

5. Legion after the transition to the manipular phalanx

Roman legion on attack. Reconstruction

In the first half of the 3rd century BC. followed by a new reorganization of the Roman army. First of all, the monotonous manning and armament of the maniple was introduced. If earlier each maniple consisted of hastat, principles and Triarius, now it was equipped with only one of these types of infantry. Manipulas have ceased to be mixed and become specialized. In addition, the number of maniples in the legion increased from 10 to 30. Now the legion consisted of 30 maniples (10 each in hastat, principles and Triarius, respectively). In the first two groups, the structure was the same - 120 people of heavy infantry and 40 orders. In Triariya, the number of infantry in the maniples was 60 heavy infantry and 40 orders. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent meaning, since the manipula remained the smallest tactical unit.

The three hundred horsemen of the legion were divided into ten rounds, 30 men each. The armed horsemen were of the Greek pattern: armor, a round shield and a spear. Each cavalry turma had three decurions - "foreman" and three selected closing ones - options (lat. optiones). The first of the decurions commanded the turma. Dekurions, like the centurions, were chosen by the tribunes.

In total, the legion thus numbered 4,500 people, including 1,200 orders and 300 horsemen.

5.1. Command and control of troops

Much attention began to be paid to the issues of command and control of troops and the organization of the rear. The army began to include one century of scribes and trumpeters, as well as two centuries of blacksmiths and carpenters, parks of siege engines and a century of engineers.

5.2. Recruitment into the Roman army

Roman legionary

The recruitment of the Roman army looked like this: At the beginning of each year, two main military magistrates - consuls - were elected. Elected consuls appointed 24 military tribunes. Ten of them were senior, their service life was to be at least ten years. The remaining 14 had to serve for at least five years. The first two of the elected senior tribunes were assigned to the first legion, the next three to the second, the next two to the third, and the next three to the fourth. The junior tribunes were appointed according to the same principle: the first four - in the first legion, the next three - in the second - and so on. As a result, each of the legions had six tribunes.

Like the Greeks, military service was considered honorable in ancient Rome and was inaccessible to the poor. Every year on the appointed day, all citizens who could serve were gathered at the Capitol. There they were divided according to the property qualification. The poor were sent to serve in the navy. The next group was assigned to the infantry, while the richest went to the cavalry. The censors who needed 1200 people for all four legions were selected even before the start of the main draft campaign. Each legion was assigned three hundred horsemen.

According to Polybius, those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. Four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected from each tribe, and they were presented in front of the tribunes. The first to choose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third, the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen first, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4200 people were recruited for each legion (it is problematic to select all 16800 people in this way, but let's leave it on Polybius' conscience).

The recruitment was coming to an end and the newcomers took the oath. The tribunes chose one person to step forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else took a step forward and vowed to do as he did ("Idem in me"). The tribunes then indicated the place and date of assembly for each legion so that all would be assigned to their respective units.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the required number of troops from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited recruits and escorted them into swearing-in, just as in Rome. They then appointed a commander and treasurer and gave orders to advance.

After arriving at the designated place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. The young and the poor were sent to the velit. Of the latter, the youngest, they recruited hastat. Those in full bloom became principles. The older veterans of past campaigns became Triaria, also called saws. One legion could not have more than 600 Triarii.

Then, from each type of army (with the exception of the velite), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, selected ten more people, also called a centurion. Your tribune was the senior centurion. The very zenzarion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. The centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed an assistant (optio) for himself.

Roman horsemen

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (gastat, principles and Triarius) into ten detachments - maniples. The first maniple of Triarius was commanded by a primipil, the first centurion. As mentioned above, the allies also formed units of 4-5 thousand people and 900 horsemen. Such allied "legions" were called - ala (from lat. Alae- Wing), because during the battle they were located on the wings of the Roman army. One such Ali was attributed to each of the legions. Thus, the word "legion" for this period should be understood as a combat unit with about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen.

A third of the best cavalry of the allies and a fifth of their best infantrymen were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (lat. extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march. The internal organization of the Allied troops for this period is not described in the sources, but, most likely, it was similar to the Roman, especially among the Latin allies.

From the time of the long siege of Weiiv at the beginning of the 4th century BC. the legionnaires began to pay. The Roman infantryman received two coins a day, the centurion - twice as much, the horseman - six obols. The Roman infantryman received support in the form of 35 liters. grain per month, rider - 100 liters. wheat and 350 liters. barley (taking into account the feeding of the horse and groom). A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salaries of both foot and mounted warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment that require replacement.

Allied infantry also received 35 hp. grain per person, and the riders got only 70 liters. wheat and 250 liters. barley. However, these products were free for the Allies.

Thus, the legion with its heavy infantry, cavalry, additional allied cavalry, light infantry, siege weapons and sappers (engineers) included all types of ground forces, although it was a cumbersome, but self-sufficient army unit.

6. Military reform Mary and her influence on the organization of the Roman army

Read more in the article Military reform of Guy Maria

Roman soldier outfit

This is how the Roman legions entered the period of the great wars. Italy, Sardinia, Sicillia, Spain, finally, Africa, Greece and Asia "the manipulative of the Roman stamp of peace". The number of legions begins to grow rapidly.

However, already in the period of the 2nd Punic War, it became obvious that the military system of Rome was far from ideal. Despite the fact that military service was paid, the salary was mainly spent on operating expenses. The main source of income for himself, the Roman citizen still saw the peasant economy or trade. Therefore, it is not surprising that the soldiers did not at all strive to serve longer. The further the theater of military operations advanced, the longer the campaigns lasted (and this happened more and more often), the more difficult it was to recruit recruits.

Those who entered the army looked forward to their release. By the end of the 2nd century BC. Rome found itself embroiled in a long war with the Numidians. This war was so unpopular that it became almost impossible to recruit new members for the legions. In 107 BC. Marius was elected consul, who focused all his attention on strengthening the Roman army. He granted access to the legions to all volunteers who hold Roman citizenship, regardless of their wealth. Poor people poured into the legions. These people did not at all strive to get rid of the service as soon as possible - on the contrary, they were ready to serve all their lives. Many could already have made a career from a simple soldier to a centurion. Volunteers linked their lives with the fate of their commanders; the main source of income for them was not pay, but military booty. The people who devoted their lives to the army did not have an economy to which they could return after service, they could only count on the fact that when they became veterans, after 16 years of service, the commander would provide them with an allotment of land for their release. Thus, the abolition of the property qualification laid the foundations for the creation of a professional Roman army, and the role of the commander increased enormously.

Under the old recruitment system, legions were formed anew with each campaign and therefore lacked a sense of cohesion. This situation has changed since the time of Mary. Each legion received its own flag. The famous Roman eagle, Aquila, has become a symbol of victory and power for many centuries.

Around the same time, the structure of the legion changed radically. Even in the second Punic War, when the legions were being formed, due to a shortage of manpower, they abandoned the age principle of dividing into gastat, principles and Triarius. Now all soldiers began to arm themselves with a sword and pilums and defend themselves with one type of armor. The names of the gastat, the principle and the Triara were preserved only to designate the centurion positions and the sequence of entering the infantry into battle (the tactics of gradually introducing soldiers into battle was preserved, but the legion could already be built in one, two, three, or even four rows). The maniples were losing their former tactical significance more and more, they were increased to 120 people and united into cohorts, three maniples in each. The cohort became a tactical unit. Thus, the legion began to consist not of thirty maniples, but of ten cohorts. The division into the centuria was preserved, as was the rank of the centurion, and in the camps and in the fortresses, soldiers were still located along the centuri.

Legionnaire with ammunition

After the Civil War, all Italians south of the Po River received Roman citizenship. For the military organization, this meant that all differences between the Roman and allied legions were eliminated. From now on, the legion becomes exactly the legion, and does not include an equal number of soldiers from the allied cities of Rome.

The trend towards eliminating differences within the legion and between the legion and the ali (the allied legion) was supported by the abolition of the lightly armed skirmishers (velit) and the legions of cavalry that were now part of the legion. Now the legion, although it has become a perfect fighting force, sometimes it needed the support of other branches of the army.

Auxilias or auxils appeared - auxiliary troops that are neither Roman nor allied. Since the war with Hannibal, the Romans, imitating him, began to use military specialists from all over the Mediterranean: Cretan archers, Balearic slingers. Spain supplied both cavalry and infantry, mostly heavy. After the conquest of Numidia, the auxilias of the Numidian light cavalry appeared. The Romans now needed large units of cavalry to support the legions and professional light infantry to disrupt enemy lines and combat on rough terrain.

To Maria, the army of the old model was always accompanied by a long wagon train. The wagons were easy prey for the enemy and greatly slowed down the advance of the troops. Marius forced the legionnaires to carry all the necessary supplies and equipment on themselves, for which the soldiers received the nickname "Mariev's mules". The carts were not eliminated, but they were greatly reduced and became more organized.

7. Piznorepublikanskiy Roman legion of the era of Caesar

Ballista

The final transformation of the Roman army into a professional one took place in the middle of the 1st century BC. e. under Pompeii and Caesar. Caesar organized the legions he had recruited on new foundations. The size of the legion now ranged from 3,000 to 4,500. Each legion had to have its own cavalry. Each legion included 55 ballistas, which are heavy arrows and 10 onagers and catapults for throwing stones. The "artillery park" of the legion has noticeably increased. The legion's wagon train grew again to 500 mules and now carried siege equipment, camp supplies and utensils. Caesar used Gallic and Germanic cavalry, using the tactics of a joint battle of cavalry and light infantry. In total, the allied cavalry of the Gauls and Germans in the army of Caesar was 4,000-5,000 horsemen. Since the time of Caesar, the name "quaestor" - "Explorer"), from people not younger than thirty years. praefectus- "Chief, Commander") - the highest officials of the army and navy. In the legion, prefects could command cavalry (praefectus equitus), sappers (praefectus fabrum), legion camp (praefectus castorum). The common thing for the position of the prefect was that they held their position one by one (and not in pairs, like tribunes and consuls), their position was more or less permanent and they were appointed personally by the military leader. The highest position in the legion was held by a legate (lat. legatus- "The Chosen One"). Senators were usually appointed legates, which in the late republic meant that he had to earlier serve at least as a quaestor. The legates of Pompey and Caesar were a close-knit group of experienced warriors, although sometimes, for political reasons, not quite suitable people were appointed legates, as well as tribunes. The legates were right hand commander-in-chief, his closest assistants. Caesar often instructed his legates to command a legion, then several legions, then auxiliary cavalry, then a separate unit in a particularly important area. But usually the legates were inextricably linked with some one legion.

The commander's headquarters appeared, which became a kind of school for training future military leaders. The headquarters consisted of legates, tribunes and prefects. Young volunteers are seconded to the headquarters to act as adjutants. There was a personal guard of the commander. Since ancient times, the consul had twelve lictors, who acted as his personal guard. Lictors wore bundles of rods with axes inside the fascia (lat. fasces)), As a sign that the consul has the power to punish Roman citizens, up to and including the death penalty. However, it became obvious that such protection was not enough for a commander during the conduct of hostilities. This is how extraordinaries appeared (lat. extraordinarii) - Consular is worth it.

Back in 133 BC. Scipio Africanus recruited a personal guard of 500 selected fighters. They became known as the Praetorian Cohort, from the Praetorium, the main square of the camp, where the commander's tent was pitched. By the end of the republic, all the military leaders already had their own praetorian cohort.

The overwhelming majority of the commanding staff in the legion were, as before, the centurions, the commanders of the centuria. The first commander of the Century was in command of the maniples. The cohort was commanded by the centurion of the Century Triarius. The six centurions of the first cohort of each legion could take part in the meetings of the war council.

Consuls, from the time of the kings, still inherited the positions of commanders-in-chief. The Roman Republic did not know the sole command of the army. Moreover, even in the Punic Wars, in the face of the invasion of Hannibal, the Roman consuls continue to change every year. However, in addition to the troops that recruited new consuls or received from their predecessors, there were other units, commanded by former consuls or praetors, to whom additional powers were added, as a result of which they rose to the rank of proconsuls and propraetor. This expansion of the powers of the highest ranks of the army proved to be the simplest way of appointing governors in the provinces, which Rome continued to acquire. As the theaters of war drifted further away from Rome, the proconsul often had to fight alone, without a colleague to hold him back. Caesar was originally one of these proconsuls. He and his legions for ten years three Gallic provinces and new conquests of the territory, and then returned the legions, which by that time had already finally become his "own", and set off on a campaign against Rome. Thus, under the blow of the veterans of the Gallic wars, the Roman Republic fell. The era of the Principate, the era of the Roman Empire, began.

8. Conclusions

Turning your eyes to the history of the Roman Republican army, you are amazed that despite the strict adherence to the traditions and customs of antiquity, which were reflected in the systems of formation, organization and management of the legion, nevertheless, the army system of Ancient Rome was not ossified, but on the contrary, reacted in a timely manner to all the requirements of the time, changes in the enemy's tactics, the development of the political situation in the country. Roman legions managed to defeat the Notes

1. Delbrück G. History of military art. - SPb .: Nauka, 1994. - Vol. 1. - S. 191

Sources of

• Delbrück G. History of military art. - SPb .: "Science", 1994.-t. I.

• History of Europe. T. 1. Ancient Europe. - M .: "Science", 1988.

• Conolly P. Greece and Rome. Encyclopedia military history... - M .: "Eksmo-Press", 2000.

• Razin E. A. History of military art.-M .: "Polygon". - 1994-t. I

• Dictionary of Antiquity. Per. from German. - M .: "Progress", 1989.

• Toksakov N. Military organization Rome of the early Republic (VI-IV centuries BC). - M., 1998.

• Godsworthy A. The Roman Army at war-Clarendon .: Oxford University Press-1998.

• Godsworthy A. Roman warfare.-London.-2000.

By the III century. BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars, such a perfect instrument of offensive and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its entire strength was usually four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the other stayed in Rome. If necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of military operations.

The legions had allied infantry and cavalry contingents. The legion of the Republic era itself consisted of 4500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantrymen: 1200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastats), 1200 people of heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors, represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, which consisted of two centuries. Each centurion was commanded by a centurion, one of them was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. The manipul had its own banner (badge). Initially, it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, cast in bronze, was attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the flag staff.

Armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization was in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: in the course of the wars that the Romans had to wage, they borrowed the strengths of the enemy armies and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which this or that war was going.

Infantry armament. So, the traditional heavy weapons of the infantryman, similar to the hoplite among the Greeks, changed as follows. The solid metal carapace was replaced by chain mail or lamellar, lighter and less restricting movement. Leggings ceased to be used, tk. instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical (scutum) about 150 cm high appeared, covering the entire body of the warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. At the edges, the scutum was bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal badge (umbon). On the legs of the legionnaire were soldier's boots (kaligi), and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for the centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as the main type of offensive weapon, then the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. Besides the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply sharpened and hardened sting. From the opposite end, the tip had a bushing, where a wooden shaft was inserted and then fixed. Such a spear could be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for a throw: piercing the enemy's shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually fell into one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a closed formation of legionnaires.

Combat tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle with a phalanx, like the Greeks, then in the course of the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites, they developed a special manipulative tactics that looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built along maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first consisted of the maniples of the gastats, the second of the principles, at a slightly greater distance from them were the triarii. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and light infantry (velites), armed with javelins and slings, marched in loose formation in front of the front.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form a continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by sliding the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. Triarii manipulators were usually used only when the situation became critical, usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having rebuilt from the pre-battle (chess) order, in which it was easier to maintain the formation, into the battle one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The Velites formed the first wave of attackers: having thrown the enemy formation with darts, stone and lead cannonballs from sling, they then ran back to the flanks and into the gaps between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 m from the enemy, rained down on him a hail of spears-pilums and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. In the midst of the battle, cavalry and light infantry defended the flanks of the legion, and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle was unsuccessful, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped only for a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a moat and rampart. The top of the rampart was additionally protected by a palisade and guarded around the clock by sentries. In the center of each side of the camp there were gates through which the army could enter or leave the camp in a short time. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy missiles from reaching it, the tents of soldiers and commanders were set up in a once and for all order. In the center was the commander's tent - the praetorium. There was free space in front of her, enough to build up an army here, if the commander needed it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. More than once it happened that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated in an attempt to storm the Roman camp.

Submission of Northern and Central Italy. Continuously improving their military organization, using the troops of the conquered peoples (the so-called allies) for their own strengthening, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. subjugated Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented generals of the Hellenistic era.