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The founder of the sociometric method is. Method of sociometry. Results of sociometry. Data processing

The method of sociometry is absolutely specific for social psychology. Sociometry allows you to identify the features of the systems of informal relations in a group; the degree of psychological compatibility of specific people; intra-group statuses of participants in the procedure; the quality of the psychological atmosphere of the group as a whole.

Sociometry is a theory and a holistic practical method of psychodiagnostic socio-psychological measurement of interpersonal and intragroup relations, the author of which is the Austrian-American psychologist and sociologist Jacob (Jacob) Levi Moreno (1892-1974). In his opinion, the psychological state, the adequacy of a person's behavior largely depends on the position he occupies in the informal structure of a small group. The lack of sympathy becomes both a consequence of interpersonal problems and their source. According to J. Moreno, sociometry is a method of primary diagnosis of the presence of certain problems in relationships. The undoubted advantage of this method is that group relations receive a specific expression in the form of a table, diagrams, graphs, and numerical values.

The method of sociometry refers to the tools of socio-psychological research of the structure of small groups, as well as the study of personality as a member of a group. Methodology "Sociometry" is used to measure group properties, captures certain properties of the group as a holistic entity. The methodologically justified use of the arsenal of the sociometric method makes it possible to obtain serious theoretical conclusions about the processes of functioning and development of the group, and, as a result, to achieve practical results. Repeated measurements carried out in the same group allow one to explore the dynamics of relationships in the group.

Thus, the area of ​​measurement by sociometric technique is the diagnosis of interpersonal and intragroup relations. With the help of the sociometric method, they study the typology of social behavior in a group activity, evaluate the cohesion, compatibility of group members. The sociometry method was developed by J. Moreno as a way to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group. Measurement involves a survey of each member of a small group in order to establish those members of the group with whom he would prefer (choose) or, on the contrary, would not want (did not choose) to participate in a certain type of activity or interact in any situation.

The sociometric measurement procedure includes the following elements: determination of the variant (number) of elections (deviations); selection of survey criteria (questions); organizing and conducting a survey; processing and interpretation of the results using quantitative (sociometric indices) and graphic (sociogram) methods of analysis.

Sociometric procedure is carried out in two forms. The non-parametric procedure involves answering questions without limiting the number of choices or rejections. Parametric procedure - limiting the number of choices.

There are different types of sociometric criteria: communicative (highlight real relationships), gnostic (determine the degree of awareness of real relationships), double and single, role-playing, etc.

The choice of criteria is connected with the problem of determining their number and specialization in a sociometric questionnaire. It is recommended to specialize and select criteria based on a preliminary analysis of the group's life, highlighting situations that are especially significant for the group, i.e. mediated by the tasks and goals facing the group, use a common, fundamental criterion to identify the "deep" connection of group members. The latter involves the use of questions relating to the assessment of the general emotional state of the subjects under the condition that the group breaks up in the future, for example, in the event of a reorganization of a group or team, its movement, etc.

The results of the study can be presented in the form of a sociometric matrix (table), which includes all the choices and (or) deviations made or assumed by the members of the group, as well as in the form of a sociogram that graphically depicts the results obtained or in the form of various sociometric indices that give a quantitative presentation. about the position of the individual in the group, as well as an assessment of the group as a whole.

Sociometric indices are divided into two groups: individual and group. Individual indicators include: sociometric status - the value of the positive or negative attitude of the group towards its individual member, which is determined by the ratio of the number of choices and deviations that the individual received to their maximum possible number. The index of emotional (psychological) expansiveness is the degree of activity of an individual in interaction with other members of the group, the need to make contacts with them. It is calculated as the ratio of the number of choices made by individuals and deviations regarding group members to their maximum possible number.

To characterize the position of an individual in a group, other indices are also calculated, for example, the “prescribed role”, the acceptability of an individual by a group, etc. However, the main difficulty lies in their interpretation, comparing them with known socio-psychological concepts.

The most popular group indices include the following: indicators of group expansiveness (intensity of group interaction), group integration (the degree of involvement in communication of group members in a particular type of activity or situation), indicators of cohesion, and a number of others.

We emphasize that one of the most significant scientific and practical innovations of J. Moreno is the so-called sociogram. This is a certain pictorial scheme, which consists of several concentric circles containing graphical aspects of the sociometric status of group members. Each of the circles corresponds to the number of preferences in this group (the closer to the center, the more preferences). Preferences are identified through surveys or other research. The most popular member of the group in this group (or several such members) is placed in the center, then the less popular ones, in descending order, up to the outcasts (extreme circle). Between individuals, indicated by circles, lines with arrows are drawn, indicating mutual, or one-sided, sympathy or antipathy.

Thus, graphical data analysis is carried out by constructing a sociogram. Sociograms make it possible to visually single out subgroups (groups), positive, conflict or tense "areas" within group relations, its "popular" members (individuals with the maximum number of choices) or "rejected" ones (individuals who received the maximum number of deviations or the minimum number of choices), determine the leader of the group.

The small group as an object of study occupies a special place in the system of social sciences. It concentrates a number of important problems of both socio-practical, managerial, and theoretical-research nature.

The process of direct social interaction that takes place in a small group and creates a social “microenvironment” of a person is an extremely strong factor in the formation and education of a personality, socio-psychological stimulation and regulation of its activities. A small group is an important element of the social system as a whole; it focuses in itself those social relations in which it is woven, embodies them in intra-group relations. Knowledge of the mechanisms of these relations is a necessary element of social management, built on a scientific basis. At the same time, it is in a small group that the action of these mechanisms is so clear and varied that it makes it possible to successfully apply and analyze the most diverse approaches to explaining social reality - sociological, socio-psychological and psychological, dynamic and statistical, etc.

One of the most effective ways to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group is sociometry. It is a kind of way to quantify interpersonal relationships in a group.

The term “sociometry” comes from the Latin word societas - society and the Greek metruin - I measure and means, on the one hand, the branch of social psychology and sociology that studies interpersonal relations in small groups using quantitative methods with an emphasis on the study of likes and dislikes within the group, and on the other side - applied direction, including the study, improvement and use of appropriate tools for solving practical problems. Psychology. Dictionary / Under the general. ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. -- 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - M.: Politizdat, 1990. - 494 p.

Sociometry is the science of society created by the Italian psychologist G. Moreno, the psychological theory of society and at the same time an experimental method, a socio-psychological test that allows you to study and, on the basis of the knowledge gained, regulate interpersonal connections and relationships in a group.

The purpose of sociometry is to harmonize social relations by arranging people in a group depending on their emotional preferences and by neutralizing emotional aversions between group members.

The essence of sociometric technology at the operational level of analysis is determined by the concept of "choice". Based on the characteristics of the group, questions are formulated that encourage group members to make choices or determine preferences among group members as partners in terms of both business interaction and emotional and sensory perception (“for the gift” and “for the soul”).

A wide range of evaluations is possible here, due to positive and negative real choice, positive or negative supposed choice. The analysis of statements provides very useful information about the number of choices or rejections received by each member of the group, the number of mutual choices or rejections, the number of justified or not justified assumptions about the choice or rejection by other members of the group, etc. Ultimately, sociometry will identify the leaders of the group, outcasts, microgroups and will give other information. Sociometry can be carried out taking into account the motives of the elections, which significantly enriches the analysis of group differentiation.

The number of choices received by each person serves as a measure of his position in the system of interpersonal relations, his sociometric status.

The results obtained using the sociometric technique can be presented in the form of matrices, sociograms, numerical indices.

A sociogram is a graphical expression of the mathematical processing of the results of a study of interpersonal relationships. It allows you to visualize the structure of relations in the group, and in different forms - individually for each member of the group and in general for the entire group. Members of the group are graphically placed depending on their popularity - in the center or on the periphery, while almost all connections are reflected.

Sociometric "layout" can have the following structure: - people who receive the most positive choices. This means that they are the most popular, sympathetic, they are called "stars". Typically, the "stars" group are those who receive the most positive choices, provided that each makes three choices;

People receiving an average of such choices. They are categorized as "preferred";

People receiving less than the average number of positive choices. They are classified as neglected;

People who do not receive a single positive choice. These are people who are ignored, rejected.

As a result of sociometric research, the leader receives not only information about the position of each member of the group in the system of interpersonal relations, but also a generalized picture of the state of this system, or what is usually called the psychological climate of the group. It is characterized by a special indicator - the level of well-being of the group's relationships. He might be:

High, if there are more "stars" and "preferred" members in total than "neglected", "rejected" members of the group;

Average, if there is an approximate equality of these values;

Low if the number of "neglected", "isolated" and "rejected" members of the group is greater than the number of "stars" and "preferred".

RESEARCH PROGRAM

Research base: State Educational Institution "Children's Home No. 1", Arkhangelsk

Number of subjects: 21 people.

Purpose: study of interpersonal relationships in groups of different ages through psychological testing and participant observation.

Object: pupils of the orphanage.

Subject: interpersonal relationships between orphans and children left without parental care.

Research methods:

Sociometry;

Projective test "Subjective feeling of being in a group";

Mathematical processing;

Analysis and interpretation of the obtained data.

Two groups were taken for the study.

In the first - children from 8 to 15 years old, 7 boys and 3 girls. In the second - children from 9 to 17 years. 6 boys and 5 girls.

Group members are invited to answer questions. The question is read out and instructions are given: “Write on pieces of paper under the number 1 the name of the member of the group whom you would choose first of all, under the number 2 - who would you choose if there was no first, under the number 3 - who would you choose if there were no first and second.

Questions in sociometric research:

With which member of your group would you like to do a joint task?

Which member of your group would you go to the cinema with?

1. "Stars" - Valya K., Sasha Ya.;

"Preferred" - no;

"Accepted" - Zhenya K., Dima B., Egor F., Sergey K., Natasha Ch., Anya K.;

"Unaccepted" - Christina Ch.; Natasha Ch.

"Rejected" - Dima M.

2. "Stars" - Ilona V, Galya M.;

"Preferred" - Sasha Z.;

"Accepted" - Kostya A., Vitalik S., Vitya N., Katya T., Oksana A.;

"Unaccepted" - Ivan S., Anya R.;

"Rejected" - Roma Yu.

Analyzing the role repertoire, we can say that the "Stars" have a higher level of activity, they are more friendly and conscious than other members of the group. These children carry out the regulation of interpersonal relations, lead the group, organize, plan and manage the activities of the group. The leaders of these groups make more direct decisions regarding group activities, stimulate the group, aim it at solving certain problems. A leader is not always successful; under certain conditions, leadership opportunities may increase, while under others, on the contrary, they may decrease. In addition to the "Stars", other social roles are distinguished in the group. Most of the group is "Accepted" and "Preferred". The “Rejected” and “Rejected” have lower communication skills than the rest, among them are children who have recently joined the group and who are adapting in the group, as well as children with deviant behavior.

To harmonize interpersonal relations at this time, the following methods can be used, but for this it should be borne in mind that a group is not a sum of individuals, but a community that affects the behavior of all members:

The inclusion of individuals in joint activities. This activity becomes so significant in the life of each member of the group that he accepts its values ​​not under influence or persuasion, but independently;

Generalization of attention, interests, motives, attitudes, mores, customs and habits;

Rivalry with another group or groups (solid people feel supported by each other, and they do not experience tension in relationships and dissatisfaction with themselves).

Subjective feeling of being in a group

To confirm the data obtained with the help of a sociometric study, the children were offered a task on the subjective feeling of being in a group. The essence of this task was to perform a creative task in which the children were asked to imagine and depict their group in the form of colored circles on a blank sheet of paper using colored pencils.

Purpose: study of interpersonal relations in different age groups.

This task was analyzed according to the following criteria:

According to the color scheme: the children were offered a choice of six colors: red, brown, black, yellow, blue, green. By the color of the circles, you can determine a personal attitude towards a person;

By the size of the circles: the significance of this person in the group was determined (the larger the size of the circle, the more significant the person is”;

By the location of the circles on the sheet: determining the distance in relationships with individual members of the group;

In one of the groups, the respondents included caregivers in their composition, and they depicted them in the form of large yellow circles. These data indicate that children consider caregivers to be important members of their group. Bright colors are the basis of the chosen color, children avoid dark colors. Thus, we can conclude that there are good, warm, emotional relationships within the group.

This positive experience in the organization of educational activities in the orphanage was formed as a result of the search by the team for optimal conditions for the formation of the personality of the inmate of the orphanage.

The sociometric technique developed by J. Moreno is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, it is possible to study the typology of people's social behavior in the conditions of group activity, to judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

A sociometric procedure may aim to:

a) measure the degree cohesion-disunity in a group;
b) identifying "sociometric positions", i.e., the relative authority of the members of the group according to the signs likes-dislikes, where the "leader" of the group and the "rejected" are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intra-group subsystems, close-knit formations, which may be headed by their informal leaders.

The use of sociometry makes it possible to measure the authority of formal and informal leaders in order to regroup people in teams in such a way as to reduce tension in the team arising from the mutual hostility of some members of the group. The sociometric technique is carried out by a group method, its implementation does not require large time costs (up to 15 minutes). It is very useful in applied research, especially in work on improving relationships in a team. But it is not a radical way to resolve intra-group problems, the causes of which should be sought not in the likes and dislikes of group members, but in deeper sources.

The reliability of the procedure depends primarily on the correct selection of sociometric criteria, which is dictated by the research program and preliminary acquaintance with the specifics of the group.

sociometric procedure

The general scheme of actions in sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions concerning the possible criteria for interviewing group members are formulated. There can be no complete anonymity, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter's requirement to disclose his likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties for the respondents and is manifested in some people in the reluctance to participate in the survey. Once sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are entered on a special card or offered orally according to the type of interview. Each member of the group is obliged to respond to them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, sympathy or, conversely, antipathy, trust or distrust, etc.

Group members are invited to answer questions that provide an opportunity to discover their likes and dislikes, one to one, for leaders, group members whom the group does not accept. The researcher reads out two questions: a) and b) and gives the following instructions to the subjects: “Write on pieces of paper under the number 1 the name of the member of the group whom you would choose first, under the number 2 - who would you choose if there was no first, under the number 3 - who would you choose if there were no first and second. Then the researcher reads out a question about personal relationships and also conducts a briefing.

In order to confirm the reliability of the answers, the study can be conducted in the group several times. Other questions are taken for re-examination.

Sample Questions for Exploring Business Relationships

1. a) which of your comrades from the group would you ask, if necessary, to provide assistance in preparing for classes (first, second, third)?

b) which of your comrades from the group would you not like to ask, if necessary, to provide you with assistance in preparing for classes?

2. a) with whom would you go on a long business trip?

b) Which member of your group would you not take on a business trip?

3. a) which of the members of the group will better perform the functions of a leader (headman, trade union representative, etc.)?

b) which member of the group will find it difficult to fulfill the duties of a leader?

Sample Questions for Studied Personal Relationships

1. a) Who in your group would you turn to for advice in a difficult life situation?

b) with whom from the group would you not like to consult about anything?

2. a) if all the members of your group lived in a hostel, with which of them would you like to live in the same room?

b) if your whole group were to be re-formed, which of its members would you not want to keep in your group?

3. a) who from the group would you invite to a birthday party?

b) who from the group would you not like to see at your birthday party?

At the same time, the sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms. The first option is a non-parametric procedure. In this case, the subject is invited to answer the questions of the sociometric card without limiting the number of choices of the subject. If the group is calculated, say, 12 people, then in this case, each of the respondents can choose 11 people (except himself). Thus, the theoretically possible number of choices made by each member of the group towards other members of the group in this example will be equal to (N-1), where N is the number of members of the group. In the same way, the theoretically possible number of choices received by the subject in the group will be equal to (N-1). Let us immediately understand that the specified value (N-1) of the received elections is the main quantitative constant of sociometric measurements. With a non-parametric procedure, this theoretical constant is the same for the individual making the choice, as it is for any individual who has become the object of the choice. The advantage of this version of the procedure is that it allows you to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each member of the group, to make a cut of the variety of interpersonal relationships in the group structure. However, as the size of the group increases to 12-16 people, these connections become so numerous that it becomes very difficult to analyze them without the use of computer technology.

Another disadvantage of the non-parametric procedure is the high probability of obtaining a random selection. Some subjects, guided by a personal motive, often write in the Questionnaires: "I choose everyone." It is clear that such an answer can have only two explanations: either the subject really has such a generalized amorphous and undifferentiated system of relations with others (which is unlikely), or the subject deliberately gives a false answer, hiding behind formal loyalty to others and to the experimenter (which is most likely) .

The analysis of such cases led some researchers to try to change the very procedure for applying the Method and thus reduce the likelihood of random selection. Thus, the second variant was born - a parametric procedure with a limited number of choices. Subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. For example, in a group of 25 people, everyone is asked to choose only 4 or 5 people. The value of limiting the number of sociometric choices is called the "sociometric limit" or "limit of choices". Many researchers believe that the introduction of a "sociometric constraint" significantly exceeds the reliability of sociometric data and facilitates the statistical processing of the material. From a psychological point of view, sociometric restriction forces the subjects to be more attentive to their answers, to choose for answer only those members of the group who really correspond to the proposed roles of a partner, leader or comrade in joint activities. The selection limit significantly reduces the probability of random responses and allows one to standardize the conditions for elections in groups of different sizes in one sample, which makes it possible to compare material for different groups.

It is currently accepted that for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the "sociometric constraint" should be chosen within 4-5 choices. The essential difference of the second variant of the sociometric procedure is that the sociometric constant (N-1) is preserved only for the system of received choices (ie, from the group to the participant). For a system of given choices (i.e., to a group from a participant), it is measured by a new value d (a sociometric constraint). By introducing this value, one can standardize the external conditions for elections in groups of different sizes. To do this, it is necessary to determine the value of d by the same probability of random selection for all groups. The formula for determining such a probability was proposed at one time by J. Moreno and E. Jennings: P(A)=d/(N-1), where P is the probability of a random event (A) of a sociometric choice; N is the number of group members.

Typically, the value of P(A) is selected in the range of 0.20-0.30. Substituting these values ​​into formula (1) to determine d with a known value of N, we obtain the desired number of "sociometric restriction" in the group selected for measurements.

The disadvantage of the parametric procedure is the inability to reveal the variety of relationships in the group. It is possible to identify only the most subjectively significant relationships. The sociometric structure of the group as a result of this approach will reflect only the most typical, "selected" communications. The introduction of a "sociometric restriction" does not allow one to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.

Sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire is compiled at the final stage of program development. In it, each member of the group should indicate their attitude towards other members of the group according to the selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, spending leisure time, playing a game, etc.) Criteria are determined depending on the program of this study : whether relationships are studied in the production group, the leisure group, the temporary group, or the stable group.

sociometric card

When polling without limiting the choices in the sociometric card, after each criterion, a column should be allocated, the size of which would allow giving fairly complete answers. In a choice-restricted survey, as many vertical graphs are drawn on the card to the right of each criterion as there are choices we intend to allow in the given group. Determining the number of elections for groups of different sizes, but with a predetermined value of P (A) within 0.14-0.25, can be made using a special table (see below).

Sociometric Choice Restriction Values

Results of sociometry. Data processing

When sociometric cards are filled and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. The simplest methods of quantitative processing are tabular, graphical and indexological.

Sociomatrix (table). First, you should build the simplest sociomatrix. An example is given in the table (see below). Election results are spread across the matrix using symbols. The results tables are completed first, separately for business and personal relationships.

The names of all members of the group being studied are written vertically behind the numbers; horizontally - only their number. At the corresponding intersections, the numbers +1, +2, +3 indicate those who were chosen by each subject in the first, second, third turn, the numbers -1, -2, -3 - those whom the subject does not choose in the first, second and third turn .

Mutual positive or negative choices are circled in the table (regardless of the order of choice). After the positive and negative choices are entered in the table, it is necessary to calculate vertically the algebraic sum of all the choices received by each member of the group (the sum of the choices). Then you need to calculate the sum of points for each member of the group, taking into account that the choice in the first place is equal to +3 points (-3), in the second - +2 (-2), in the third - +1 (-1). After that, the total algebraic sum is calculated, which determines the status in the group.

№ Surname 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Ivanov +1 +2 +3 -1
2 Petrov +1 +3 +2
3 Sidorov -1 +1 +2 +3
4 Danilova +2 +1 +3
5 Alexandrova +2 +1 +3 -3 -2
6 Adamenko
7 Petrenko +1 +3
8 Kozachenko +1 +3 +2
9 Yakovlev +2 +1 +3 -1
10 Shumskaya +2 +1 +3 -1
Number of elections
Number of points
total amount

Note: + positive choice; is a negative choice.

Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationship in the group. Summary sociomatrices can be built that give a picture of the elections according to several criteria, as well as sociomatrices based on the data of intergroup elections. The main advantage of the sociomatrix is ​​the ability to represent the elections in numerical form, which in turn allows you to rank the members of the group according to the number of elections received and given, to establish the order of influences in the group. Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram is built - a map of sociometric choices (sociometric map.

Sociogram

Sociogram - a graphical representation of the reaction of the subjects to each other when answering a sociometric criterion. The sociogram allows you to make a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on a certain plane (“shield”) using special signs (Fig. below). It gives a visual representation of the intra-group differentiation of group members based on their status (popularity). An example of a sociogram (map of group differentiation) proposed by Ya. Kolominsky, see below:

——> positive unilateral choice,
<——>positive mutual choice,
------> negative one-sided choice,
<------>negative mutual choice.

The sociogram technique is an essential addition to the tabular approach in the analysis of sociometric material, because it enables a deeper qualitative description and visual presentation of group phenomena.

The analysis of the sociogram consists in finding the central, most influential members, then mutual pairs and groupings. Groupings are made up of interrelated individuals seeking to choose each other. Most often in sociometric measurements there are positive groupings of 2, 3 members, less often of 4 or more members.

Sociometric indices

There are personal sociometric indices (P.S.I.) and group sociometric indices (G.S.I.). The former characterize the individual socio-psychological properties of a person in the role of a member of a group. The latter give numerical characteristics of the integral sociometric configuration of the choices in the group. They describe the properties of group communication structures. The main P.S.I. are: index of the sociometric status of the i-member; emotional expansiveness of the j-member, volume, intensity and concentration of the interaction of the ij-member. The symbols i and j stand for the same person, but in different roles; i - selectable, j - aka choosing, ij - combination of roles.

The I-member of the group is determined by the formula:

where C i is the sociometric status of the i-member, R + and R - are the choices received by the i-member, Z is the sign of the algebraic summation of the number of choices received by the i-member, N is the number of members of the group.

Sociometric status is the property of a person as an element of a sociometric structure to occupy a certain spatial position (locus) in it, that is, to correlate in a certain way with other elements. This property is developed among the elements of the group structure unevenly and for comparative purposes can be measured by a number - the index of sociometric status.

The elements of the sociometric structure are individuals, members of the group. Each of them in one way or another interacts with everyone, communicates, directly exchanges information, etc. At the same time, each member of the group, being part of the whole (group), influences the properties of the whole with its behavior. The realization of this influence proceeds through various socio-psychological forms of mutual influence. The subjective measure of this influence is emphasized by the magnitude of the sociometric status. But a person can influence others in two ways - either positively or negatively. Therefore, it is customary to talk about positive and negative status. Status also measures a person's potential for leadership. To calculate the sociometric status, it is necessary to use the data of the sociomatrix.

It is also possible to calculate C-positive and C-negative status in groups of small size (N).

The j-member of the group is calculated by the formula

where Ej is the emotional expansiveness of the j-member, R j are the choices made / by the member (+, -). From a psychological point of view, the indicator of expansiveness characterizes a person's need for communication.

From G.S.I. the most important are: Index emotional expansiveness of the group and the index of psychological reciprocity.

Index of emotional expansiveness of the group calculated by the formula:

where Ag is the expansiveness of the group, N is the number of members of the group? R j (+,-) are the choices made by the j-member. The index shows the average activity of the group in solving the task of the sociometric test (per each member of the group).

Index of psychological reciprocity (“group cohesion”) in the group is calculated by the formula

:

where Gg is reciprocity in the group based on the results of positive elections, A ij + is the number of positive mutual ties in the group N is the number of group members.

Literature:

1. Methods of psychological diagnostics. - M., 1993
2. Methods of socio-psychological diagnostics of personality and group. - M., 1990

Any community of people is a complex structure of interpersonal relationships and microgroups. Social psychology, studying the nature of these relationships, uses a variety of methods, but sociometry is considered the most famous and popular. This term is translated as “social dimension”, and the developer of the method is the American psychologist Jacob (Jacob) Moreno.

The young doctor Jacob Moreno Levy began his research during the First World War in a refugee camp near Vienna. He drew attention to the fact that the effectiveness of people's interaction depends on who they are currently in contact with. In some cases, it is colored positive, and people interact with pleasure, in others, a rejection effect occurs, and literally everything falls out of hand for partners.

Based on his observations, Moreno came to the conclusion that society is subject to the same laws of attraction and repulsion as the physical world. Therefore, in any community there are people who are drawn to each other and tend to unite in microgroups of 3-4 people. These micro-groups play an important role in the functioning of the entire community. His life is also greatly influenced by those who have the gift of attraction and are sympathetic to other members of the group.

Having emigrated to the USA, J. Moreno continued his research at a specialized school for juvenile delinquents, and then even opened the Sociometric Institute. By the mid-1940s, Moreno's teachings had fully taken shape, and the author himself singled out three areas in it: sociometry, sociodrama and psychodrama.

What is the essence of sociometry

Sociometry is a special experimental technique based on mathematical methods. At present, its results are used by social psychology to organize work with any group: school class, work class, etc.

The procedure for carrying out the technique

The organization of sociometric research is quite simple and does not require any special training, special conditions, or equipment. Participation in the diagnosis does not cause difficulties even for primary school students.

To conduct sociometry, special questions are used (usually only one), which should put the members of the group in a situation of choice. Usually, the subjects are asked to indicate the three most preferred classmates and the three rejected ones.

The very wording of the question largely depends on the age and type of activity of the group members. For example, when studying a school class, the following questions can be asked:

  • “Who would you like / would like to invite to your birthday party?” and “Who would you never invite to your birthday party?”
  • “Who would you like/want to go camping with?” and “Who would you never want to go camping with?”
  • "Who would you agree to be on a desert island with?" and "Who wouldn't you like to have next to you on a deserted island?"

For adults, members of a professional group, questions can be formulated in a slightly different way.

  • “If you were offered to work on an important project, which of your colleagues would you like to work with?” and “Who would you like to be with?”
  • “If you went on a business trip, which of your colleagues would you like to see next to you?”

Each participant in the study receives a card on which he must write his last name and enter the names of the preferred members of the group and on the reverse side of those who are rejected. By the way, psychologists who diagnose a group often suggest making only positive choices. And not so much because it will be easier to process the results, but because the very need to make a negative choice can cause negative emotions. Few people like to demonstrate their dislike for colleagues, an outsider. However, in some cases, negative assessments are indispensable, especially if the team has.

But it should be remembered that sociometry is one of the methods, the intermediate results of which the psychologist must keep secret so as not to worsen the social situation in the group.

Processing of the received results

In order to obtain materials that will be analyzed and used in working with a group, a psychologist, based on the data obtained, must solve a number of tasks:

  1. Determine the number of positive and negative choices each member of the group received.
  2. Identify the individuals who received the maximum and minimum number of votes.
  3. Identify people who received neither positive nor negative choices.
  4. Make a rating of likes and dislikes.
  5. Establish the presence and number of mutual elections for each member of the group.
  6. Determine the presence and composition of microgroups.
  7. Establish links between microgroups or their absence.

It's not easy to do all of this, and it can get confusing, even if the group is relatively small. To facilitate the analysis of the results in sociometry, the compilation of a sociogram and a sociomatrix is ​​provided.

A sociogram is a table in which the names of the participants and the choices they made are entered. To do this, the first column indicates the serial numbers and names of the members of the group, in the subsequent columns only the serial numbers. Then, at the intersection of rows and columns, the selections are marked. For example, No. 1 Andreev chose No. 3, No. 7 and No. 9. No. 2 Borisov chose No. 1, No. 3 and No. 6, etc. As a result, the total amount of choices for each member of the group will be clearly visible in the vertical columns.

Then the obtained data are transferred to the sociogram. It consists of three (rarely four) concentric circles in which the numbers of participants are located depending on the number of choices they received. In the center are those who received the maximum number of choices. Then the arrows indicate the elections themselves, including mutual ones.

Sociogram example

The sociogram gives a vivid picture of interpersonal relationships, and microgroups are clearly visible in it, as well as the connections between them. In studies of school classes and youth groups, psychologists usually mark male and female participants with different icons and place them on different sides of the sociomatrix. It is indicative that there are practically no elections between boys and girls before the late teenage years.

Sociometric group structure

There is a formal group structure, there is an informal one, and there is a sociometric one. Its peculiarity is that this method allows you to evaluate the subjective attitude of people to each other. Their likes and dislikes have little to do with the objective position of individuals in the group, their professional, business qualities, and often personal ones too. This should be taken into account, for example, who wants to use the results of sociometry for the distribution of functions in a team or class.

Sociometric statuses

This is the most important component of the sociometric structure. The status is determined on the basis of the choices received by the individual.

The largest number of elections and, accordingly, the highest status have "sociometric stars". They are sympathetic to many members of the group, and sometimes the majority. But it would be a mistake to identify "stars" with leaders, since they may not have the qualities necessary for a leader: energy and activity, rigidity and exactingness. "Stars" are most often just pleasant, likeable and helpful people. And having been appointed to the position of a formal leader, the “star” may partially lose the sympathy of his comrades, since the leader sometimes has to make unpopular decisions or put pressure on group members.

Following the stars are high-status or "preferred". They received fewer elections than the "stars", but they have significant authority in the group, and most often among them is a potential leader.

Then there are two statuses, the border between which is quite unsteady. In relatively small groups, they are not even separated. These are medium and low status. They do not have a large number of negative or positive choices. Often, individuals with this status form closed microgroups, choosing each other and not particularly communicating with the rest.

The next status is "outcasts". These are individuals who received more negative than positive choices.

"Neglected" or "outcasts" - members of the group who received only negative choices.

"Isolated" - social psychologists consider people who receive neither positive nor negative choices as the lowest status. Their position in the interpersonal hierarchy is even worse than that of the outcasts. "Isolated" as if do not exist for the group.

Sociometric statuses are not rigidly set and can change. Of course, it is almost impossible to go from the status of a "outcast" to the status of a "star", but it is quite possible to become "preferred".

Microgroups in sociometric structure

As a rule, sociometric studies are carried out in small groups with a little more than 20 members. And in them, sociometry makes it possible to identify microgroups of people united by mutual elections. Individuals in such formations are connected by sympathy and common interests, which makes microgroups stable elements of the structure of society.

It is these formations that the leader can effectively use to organize the work of the group as a whole. The convenience and productivity of small associations of people has been proven in pedagogy. Teachers and class teachers have long and successfully used the naturally formed class structure in their work. But also in working with adult communities, relying on microgroups can make the team more effective.

On the other hand, confrontation between microgroups, which often happens, can be destructive for the team as a whole. And sociometry makes it possible to timely reveal the presence of rejection tendencies between individual mini-communities.

The advantage of sociometry as a method is its relative simplicity - it can be carried out even by a psychologist who does not have much experience. And sociometry is very informative. Based on the data obtained, it is possible to create a detailed picture of interpersonal relationships and determine the weight of each individual in these relationships.

Specific to social psychology is sociometry method, which is designed to study the relationships between members of small groups. It can be used to describe the structure of a group based on differences in status, to identify individual groupings, and to measure the degree of cohesion. It is also used in cases where it is necessary to investigate social and psychological compatibility, to form a favorable climate.

The essence of sociometry and its possibilities. The totality of relationships in the labor (educational) team can be divided into formal (official) and informal (informal). In the most formal setting, interpersonal relationships are somehow formed between people: we have a special disposition towards someone, perhaps we dislike someone. And these personal relationships cannot but influence the general atmosphere in the team, the general character, style, and tone of relationships.

The main method for diagnosing interpersonal relationships is usually referred to as sociometry. The term "sociometry" is formed from two Latin roots - socius - comrade, accomplice, companion and metrum - measurement. The founder of sociometry is the American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno. Sociometry became widespread in foreign sociology and psychology in the 30s, after the appearance of the book by J. Moreno “Who will survive?”. He believed that the totality of interpersonal relations in a group constitutes that primary socio-psychological structure, the essence of which largely determines not only the integral characteristics of the group, but And mental state of a person.

In accordance with the theoretical concept of J. Moreno, two structures can be distinguished in society: a macrostructure - a kind of "spatial" placement of people in various processes of their life activity, and a microstructure - psychological relations that develop in a person with his immediate environment, that is, interpersonal relations.

Sociometry- this is a socio-psychological method for studying the system of personal relationships in a group, organization, which provides for the selection of other members of the group by the subjects for various areas of joint activity caused by the researcher. Thus, sociometry is based on a specific type of survey. Therefore, the method of sociometry is often also called a sociometric survey.

Like any method, sociometry has its advantages and disadvantages. to explicit benefits include the following:

* sociometry filled the vacuum created by the lack of other methods to study relationships;

* sociometry gave results in the form of quantitative indices in a field that was traditionally considered non-formalizable;

* sociometric survey is relatively simple as in implementation and analysis of the results.

TO shortcomings methods of sociometry include the following:

* the specificity and situationality of the revealed picture (fixation of predominantly emotional relations, expressed in likes and dislikes; the true motives of the elections are not revealed, etc.);

* the possibility of deliberately distorting the results in a non-anonymous test;

* limited opportunities, in particular, due to the dynamism of relations, which is difficult to grasp.

What does a sociometric survey reveal?

Firstly, sociometry allows you to determine the state of relationships in the organization and, on this basis, identify its informal structure (microgroups, informal leaders, the sociometric status of each employee, his need for communication and psychological compatibility with others, etc.)

Secondly, sociometry makes it possible to assess the authority of leaders at various levels, to identify their place in the informal structure of the organization.

Thirdly, a sociometric survey allows you to determine the level of group cohesion and disunity of both various departments of the organization and the organization as a whole.

Fourth, sociometry allows you to perform a psychotherapeutic function. Participation in a sociometric survey prompts the subjects to further analyze their relationships with other employees and often stimulates the correction of their own behavior.

The procedure for conducting a sociometric survey. The essence of sociometry comes down to identifying the system of "sympathies" and "dislikes" between employees, that is, to identifying the system of emotional relations in the organization. This identification is achieved by the implementation by each participant of the survey of certain elections from the entire composition of any subdivision of the organization according to a given criterion. All data about such elections are entered in a special table - sociomatrix and are presented as a special diagrams(sociograms). After that, various kinds of sociometric indices are calculated, both individual and group.

Conducting a sociometric survey is preceded by a certain preparatory work. It is necessary to determine the criteria (grounds) for selection and the number of elections.

Criteria (reasons) for selection in sociometry are questions about a person's desire to participate in a certain activity together with someone. Their form is questions like: "Who would you like to ...?", to which everyone answers. They can be attributed to any sphere of human relationships.

Criteria can be:

* positive (“Who would you like to spend the weekend with?”);

* negative (“If you had the opportunity, who in your department would you transfer to another department?”);

* dichotomous, which are focused on preference and denial at the same time (*In the event of a reorganization of the institution, with which of your colleagues would you like to get into the same department, and with whom would you not want to?).

In order to choose the right criteria, and therefore, competently conduct a study, it is necessary to comply with a number of requirements.

1. The proposed criteria should be of interest to the entire team. Obviously unfortunate for a group not connected with the practical use of programming languages, the following criterion will be: "With whom would you like to learn the C++ programming language together?".

2. The criterion should reflect the relationship between employees and provide an opportunity to choose a colleague. Type Criteria: "Is there life on Mars?" - doesn't fit either.

3. The criterion should describe a specific and real situation for choosing a colleague.

4. The number of criteria depends on how long the members of the group have known each other (the longer the contact, the more criteria can be used), but it should not exceed 5-7.

When conducting sociometry, at least three criteria are used, covering the main areas of activity of the employee: service-functional, moral-moral and off-duty (leisure). Based on this, strong and weak criteria are distinguished. Strong ones affect the most important sphere of activity for a person, where long and close communication is required.

Sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms: nonparametric And parametric. Non-parametric form sociometry consists in the fact that the respondent selects, in accordance with a given criterion, as many persons as he considers necessary (that is, there are no restrictions on the choice). This form allows you to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each emotional component of the relationship of all members of the team. In addition, it allows you to make a cut of the diversity of interpersonal relationships in the organization.

However, with a large number of employees in the surveyed department of interpersonal relations, when using this form, so many are revealed that the process of their determination takes a lot of time and becomes almost impossible without the use of electronic computers. When using a non-parametric sociometry procedure, there is a high probability of obtaining a random choice (many employees in this case write: “I choose everyone” (?!).

The parametric form of sociometry consists in the fact that the subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the team. What is this number? Some researchers believe that three choices are sufficient regardless of the number of group members. Others argue that the number of choices depends on the number of group members and is equal to the number obtained by dividing the number of group members by 5.

With the parametric form of sociometry, the reliability of data increases and statistical processing is facilitated; the attention, responsibility and interest of the respondent increases, the choice limit significantly reduces the likelihood of random answers. In addition, this form allows you to standardize the conditions for elections in divisions and departments with different numbers of group members in one sample. This, in turn, makes it possible to compare the results of sociometry conducted in different departments.

After the necessary preparatory measures, the researcher can proceed to the procedure for collecting information. It is important that the necessary conditions are met. First, participants in the survey must have some experience of working together for at least three to four months. Secondly, the number of the department (subdivision) where the sociometric survey is conducted should not exceed 25-30 people. Finally, thirdly, a sociometric survey is conducted as a natural event, which should be perceived by the subjects not as an experiment on them, but as a practically necessary matter that is of great importance for their further communication and joint activities.

The survey begins with an introductory speech by the researcher, in which he briefly and correctly, in an accessible form, must state the task of the survey, indicate its importance and necessity, disclose the procedure for conducting the study and assure the subjects of the complete preservation of the secrecy of their answers.

After an introductory speech to all subjects:

* a single numbered list of the surnames of the unit under study is brought. The lists can be prepared in advance to be distributed to all those present (or at least one list per table). If there are no conditions or time for preparing the list, then it can be dictated;

* the criteria are brought and it is explained how they should make choices for each of the criteria, that is, a parametric or non-parametric form of elections;

* Either ready-made sociometric card forms or blank sheets of paper are issued. In the upper left corner, the subject puts the number under which his last name is written in the general list. Then he records on the sheet the choices he makes for each question (criterion). Filling out the card, he does not write down the names of his colleagues, but the numbers under which their names are in the general list. At the end of the work, the researcher must receive a completed sociometric card from each participant.

Filling out a sociometric card is a voluntary and purely personal matter. There is no place for pressure and pressure in this process. Sometimes some subjects evade answers, especially where negative choices are required. In these cases, it is necessary to tactfully convince the person of the need to answer all questions. However, if even after this, individual subjects refused to participate in the survey, then it is not worth dramatizing, since this is a completely normal phenomenon. Moreover, refusal to participate in the survey is also a kind of information about the relationship of this colleague with others.

After the information is collected, the researcher proceeds to process it, which includes:

* filling in the sociomatrix;

* construction of a sociogram;

* calculation of sociometric indices.

After this procedure, the researcher draws conclusions and recommendations for optimizing relationships in the unit.

Filling in sociomatrices. The sociomatrix is ​​a table of links that reflects all the choices in the team. It contains information received from participants in the survey.

To reflect all elections by any criterion, fill out sociomatrix. In the horizontal rows, according to the number of members of the collective, those who choose are indicated, and in the vertical columns, those whom they choose. Positive choices are marked with a "+" sign, negative ones - with a "-" sign. Mutual positive choices are circled, negative ones are circled. For each criterion, separate sociomatrices are filled in, which are then reduced to a common sociomatrix.

After filling in the table, the following is calculated:

* the total number of choices received by each employee;

* the number of positive and negative choices received by each employee;

* the number of positive and negative mutual choices.

Completed sociomatrices allow you to determine:

* informal leaders in the organization (those subjects who received the largest number of positive choices);

* those who are rejected by the staff of the organization (those subjects who received the largest number of negative choices);

* those who do not participate in the life of the organization (those subjects who did not receive either positive or negative choices);

* the place occupied by leaders of various levels in the informal structure of the unit, the level of their authority.

Working with the sociomatrix, the researcher must also record mutual negative choices, indicating the existing contradictions between employees. If the mutual denial of two employees meets all criteria, then this indicates the presence of a serious conflict between them, and it may not manifest outwardly. In the practice of sociometry, there are cases when one of the employees has several mutual denials with others, which indicates that he is the most conflicted member of the team.

Construction of sociograms. For a visual representation of the results of sociometry, a sociogram is used. It can be in several versions. The first option is an individual sociogram. In this case, the employee who is of the greatest interest is selected, and a sociogram is built in the system of all his connections identified during the survey. The second option is a simple group sociogram. It is a planar image of arbitrary shape, which shows all the connections and the number of choices between employees. The third option is a systemic group sociogram. This is the most difficult option, so we will dwell on explaining its essence in more detail.

In the systemic group sociogram, based on the data of the sociomatrix, interpersonal relationships in the unit are graphically shown. Based on the responses received, all subjects are divided into five groups:

* "stars" (employees with the highest number of positive choices, usually six or more; among them, as a rule, leaders). There are usually no more than 3-4 people (all calculations for groups of up to 30 people);

* "accepted" or "preferred" (employees having 3-5 positive choices). There are no more than 10-12 such people;

* "neglected" (employees having 1-2 positive choices). There are also 10-12 such people;

* "isolated" (employees deprived of elections). There can be up to 5 people.

* "outcast" (employees who have the largest number of negative choices or the predominance of negative choices over positive ones). Naturally, only the researcher knows about the names of these groups, and the names themselves are rather conditional than real and were chosen only for greater clarity in interpreting the results obtained.

The sociogram has the form of five decreasing concentric circles, in which all employees are placed in accordance with the received choices. In the central small circle - employees of the first group, between the first and second circles - employees of the second group, etc. The first and second circles are considered zones of a favorable position, and the third, fourth and fifth - a zone of unfavorable position.

Calculation of sociometric indices. Based on the sociomatrix, sociometric personal and group indicators are calculated. Let's look at personal metrics first.

1. The sociometric status index, which characterizes the popularity and authority of a given employee, is calculated by the formula:

where K+ is the number of received positive choices;

K- is the number of negative choices received.

N is the number of subjects.

Using the same indicators and their designations, you can determine:

index of positive status of an individual team member

index of the negative status of an individual member of the team

2. The index of psychological compatibility of each subject can be calculated using the following formula:


where K++ is the number of mutually positive choices for a given subject;

K-- - respectively, the number of mutual negative choices

To get a complete picture of the relationship in teams, group indicators are very useful:


where CK++ is the sum of mutual positive choices in the group.


where SC-- is the sum of mutual negative choices in the group.

3. The index of group cohesion can be calculated on the basis of the indices of group unity and disunity:

Igs = Ige - Games

These are the main sociometric indices. Based on them, recommendations are developed for optimizing interpersonal relationships in the organization. However, it is important to always keep in mind such a property of interpersonal relationships as dynamism, so one cannot limit oneself to only a single study. Usually, from the first survey, it only begins and then continues constantly after a certain period of time (usually after six months).


Similar information.