Characteristics of liberal reforms in the 60s and 70s

Establishment of zemstvos. After the abolition of serfdom, it took a number of other transformations. By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local administration proved to be completely untenable. The activities of the officials in charge of the provinces and counties, appointed in the capital, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme frustration. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, establishing new governing bodies, the government could not ignore the sentiments of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvos", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in uyezds and provinces. Only men enjoyed the right to vote in the election of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, urban voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises that generate income of at least 6 thousand rubles a year, could be a voter in the landowning curia. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only delegates in the elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6 thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large cities).

Elections for the peasant curia were multistage: at first, rural gatherings elected representatives to the volost gatherings. At parish assemblies, first electors were elected, who then nominated representatives to the county self-government bodies. At the county meetings, representatives from the peasants were elected to the provincial self-government bodies.

Zemsky institutions were divided into administrative and executive ones. Administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of vowels of all estates. Both in the counties and in the provinces, the vowels were elected for a term of three years. Zemsky assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The most energetic, democratic-minded intelligentsia was grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state authorities were unable to do. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

Zemskaya reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where noble land tenure was absent or was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-Bank Ukraine, the Caucasus did not receive local government bodies, since there were few Russians among the landowners.

Self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the zemstvo, the city reform was carried out. She introduced all-estate bodies of self-government - city dumas, elected for four years. The vowels of the Duma elected for the same period permanent executive bodies - city councils, as well as the mayor, who was the head of both the council and the council.

Men who had reached the age of 25 and who paid city taxes enjoyed the right to vote in the new governing bodies. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers contributing another 1/3 of the city's fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. Moreover, each of them elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large owners in it.

The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the City Council. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - a provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874 the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. For all its limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad strata of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform. The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all estates before the law; publicity of the court "; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial charters, two systems of courts were created - peace and general. The magistrates' courts tried minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges. At the same time, they received a fairly high salary - from 2,200 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. The members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice and tried criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The jury could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 years old with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate in the amount of 2 thousand rubles or more. The jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the District Court decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The judicial chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated to crimes against the state and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the transparency of trials. They were held openly, in the presence of the public; reports of processes of public interest were published by newspapers. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer defending the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy arose in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers FN Plevako, AI Urusov, VD Spasovich, KK Arseniev became famous in this field, who laid the foundations of the Russian school of advocate-orators. The new judicial system retained a number of vestiges of estate. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for clergy, military and high officials. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform has dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovensk, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces), it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for a three-year term. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were prohibited from holding judicial positions. In the Baltics, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the 19th century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, the appointment of justices of the peace, who at the same time performed the functions of investigators, took place, the jury was not introduced.

Military reforms. Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome the backwardness in the military field, as well as to reduce military spending made it necessary to carry out fundamental reforms in the army. They were conducted under the leadership of Minister of War D.A.Milyutin. In 1863-1864. the reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and vocational training in military schools. In these educational institutions, mainly children of the nobility studied. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were accepted. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. All-class conscription was introduced instead of recruiting. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The general service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the Navy - 10 years: 7 - valid, 3 - in reserve. For those who received education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

Utah service freed the only sons and the only breadwinners of the family, as well as those conscripts for whom the older brother was serving or had already served a period of active service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. The clergy of all religions, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to the call. In the army, corporal punishment was abolished, punishment with rods was retained only for penalties), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and soldiers were taught to read and write. The rearmament of the army and the navy took place: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze weapons with steel ones began; The rapid-fire rifles of the American inventor Berdan were adopted. The combat training system was changed. A number of new statutes, instructions were issued, teaching aids, who set the task of teaching soldiers only what is necessary in war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat capability of the troops has significantly increased. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone significant restructuring. In June 1864, the "Statute on elementary public schools" was approved, according to which such schools could open public institutions and individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools different types- state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday, etc. The term of study in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classic and real ones. In the classics, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The term of study in them was initially seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical grammar schools had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were called upon to prepare "for employment in various branches of industry and trade."

The main attention in them was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes. The foundation was laid for female secondary education - female gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to that which was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion," however, high tuition fees were established. In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since high school graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher courses for women were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kiev. Women began to be admitted to universities as well, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms have also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trusteeships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The foundation was laid for female secondary education - female gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to that which was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion," however, high tuition fees were established.

In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since high school graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher courses for women were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kiev. Women began to be admitted to universities as well, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms have also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trusteeships arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of clergy. In 1869-79. the income of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for clergy.

The liberal spirit of the reforms carried out in the field of education also touched the church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864 the children of the clergy were allowed to enter the gymnasium, and in 1866 - to the military schools. In 1867, the Synod adopted a decision on the elimination of the inheritance of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed the class barriers and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civilian institutions; they could now hold some public office, freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, they were forbidden to hold public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant sections of the population received the initial skills in management and social work. The reforms laid the traditions, albeit rather timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the class advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers; in such a country, political murder as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. Personal despotism and party despotism are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence. ”Comment on this document.

The liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 60s and 70s became a turning point in Russian history. This period has been called the era of "great reforms" by liberal leaders. Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the common European path.

The country has skyrocketed the pace economic development, the transition to a market economy began. Under the influence of these processes, new strata of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landlord farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, democratic reforms in the judicial and educational systems testified to the steady, albeit not so rapid, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all of the reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. They retained the class advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts, reforms were not fully implemented. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

Foreign policy government of Alexander II was active in almost all main areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve its foreign policy tasks, to restore its position as a great power. At the expense of the Central Asian territories, the borders of the empire expanded.

The era of "great reforms" was the time of transformation of social movements into a force capable of influencing or opposing power. Fluctuations in the government course and contradictory reforms led to the growth of radicalism in the country. The revolutionary organizations embarked on the path of terror, striving to rouse the peasants to revolution by killing the tsar and high officials.

Russian culture of the nineteenth century

The 19th century became the golden age of Russian culture. From Peter's reforms, in fact, they prepared the forces so that Russia in the 19th century would experience its revival.

The 19th century is truly the golden age of Russian culture, it is also the development of science, the development of education, Russian literature with its many names (first of all, A.S. Pushkin) created the modern Russian literary language.

If today we take Derzhavin's predecessors, Pushkin's teacher, then, undoubtedly, there is a certain difficulty in reading their work, and when you take Pushkin's work, despite the fact that no less than 200 years have passed since the creation of these works, you can feel when reading these poems a certain episode, respectively, understanding and realizing them. And after 100-80 years we read these poems completely calmly.

In the 19th century, such phenomena of Russian culture appeared in the prose of Gogol, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, etc.

Social transformations became a huge event for Russian culture, it is no coincidence that in the second half of the 19th century we see the desire of musicians artists to contribute to the social development of Russia, hence such works as a mighty handful (associations of groups and composers), as the phenomenon of itinerants of Russian artists (who created a partnership of traveling art exhibitions), we see huge phenomena in Russian science - this is, first of all, the passage around the name of Mendeleev who created periodic system etc.

1. Culture Russia XIX century

To understand the peculiarities of Russian culture in the 19th and early 20th centuries. knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law is essential Russian Empire... As a result of Peter's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was formalized in legislation, which was especially evident in the "golden age" of Catherine II. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander I, who in practice pursued a policy of strengthening the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new "spirit of the times", primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds, on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, sung by Russian poetry, from Pushkin to Tsvetaeva. The establishment of the ministries marked the further bureaucratization of management and the improvement of the central apparatus of the Russian Empire. One of the elements of modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment of the State Council, the function of which was to centralize legislative affairs and ensure the uniformity of legal norms.

The ministerial reform and the formation of the State Council completed the reorganization of the central government bodies that existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly entered the path of capitalist development. However, the political system of the Russian Empire was permeated through and through with serfdom. Under these conditions, the bureaucracy turned into a "weather vane" trying to ensure the interests of the bourgeois and the nobility, the same situation persisted later, in the era of imperialism. We can say that the political system in Russia was conservative, and this was manifested in the law. The latter is a mixed law, because in it the norms of feudal and bourgeois law were intertwined. In connection with the development of bourgeois relations in the 70s of the last century, the Russian Civil Code was adopted, copied from the Code of Napoleon, which was based on classical Roman law.

The political system and law express the peculiarities of the economic development of Russia in the 19th century, when a new, capitalist mode of production was formed in the depths of serfdom.

The main area where the new mode of production was formed earlier and more intensively was industry. In the first half of the last century, Russia was characterized by widespread small-scale industry, mainly peasant industry. In the sphere of the manufacturing industry, which produced articles of mass consumption, small peasant industries occupied a dominant position. The development of peasant industry transformed the economic appearance of the countryside and the very life of the peasant. In the industrial villages, the processes of social stratification of the peasantry and their separation from agriculture took place more intensively, the conflict between the phenomena of a capitalist nature and feudal relations was more acute. But this was only in the most economically developed central - industrial region, in other regions subsistence farming prevailed. And only after 1861 an industrial revolution took place in Russia, however, the nascent Russian bourgeoisie depended on tsarism, it was characterized by political inertia and conservatism. All this left an imprint on the development of Russian culture, gave it a contradictory character, but ultimately contributed to its high rise.

Indeed, serfdom, which kept the peasantry in darkness and downtrodden, tsarist arbitrariness suppressing all living thought, the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries hindered cultural progress. And nevertheless, despite these unfavorable conditions and even in spite of them, Russia in the 19th century made a truly giant leap forward in the development of culture, made an enormous contribution to world culture. This rise of Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of the formation of the Russian nation in the turning point of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-awareness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which enjoyed wide popularity in Russia. One should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Rus on the culture of the 19th century: the assimilation of old traditions made it possible to sprout new sprouts of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other spheres of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more contradictory - from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok - bears an indelible stamp testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave the image of Russian national holiness in the story "Living Relics". Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of creativity, which go into the Orthodox icotography.

Ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninoff became striking phenomena in the history of musical culture.

Russian culture perceived the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. Religious Russian thought, for example, left a considerable trace in the history of European peoples. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor that gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture was the "thunderstorm of the twelfth year." The rise of patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-awareness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture, V. Belinsky wrote: "The year 1812, which shook the whole of Russia, aroused popular consciousness and national pride."

Cultural and historical process in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. has its own characteristics. The acceleration of its rates is noticeable due to the above-mentioned factors. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a differentiation (or specialization) of various spheres of cultural activity (especially in science), and on the other, the complication of the cultural process itself, that is, greater "contact" and mutual influence of various areas of culture: philosophy and literature, literature, painting and music, etc. It should also be noted that the processes of diffuse interaction between the components of Russian national culture - the official ("high" professional) culture, sponsored by the state (the church is losing spiritual power), and the culture of the masses (the "folklore" layer "), Which originates in the depths of the East Slavic tribal unions, is formed in Ancient Russia and continues its full-blooded existence throughout the entire Russian history. In the depths of the official state culture, there is a layer of "elite" culture serving the ruling class (aristocracy and the royal court) and possessing a special susceptibility to foreign innovations. Suffice it to recall the romantic painting of O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin, K. Bryullov, A. Ivanov and other major artists of the 19th century.

Since the 17th century. a “third culture” was formed and developed, self-made and handicraft, on the one hand, based on folklore traditions, and on the other, gravitating towards the forms of official culture. In the interaction of these three layers of culture, often conflicting, the prevailing trend is towards a single national culture based on the convergence of official art and folklore elements, inspired by the ideas of nationality and nationality. These aesthetic principles were established in the aesthetics of the Enlightenment (P. Plavilshchikov, N. Lvov, A. Radishchev), were especially important in the era of Decembrism in the first quarter of the 19th century. (K. Ryleev, A. Pushkin) and acquired fundamental importance in the creativity and aesthetics of the realistic type in the middle of the last century.

In the formation of Russian national culture, the intelligentsia, originally made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and the nobility - is increasingly participating. In the first half of the 18th century. raznochintsy intellectuals appear, and in the second half of this century a special social group stands out - the serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the XIX century. - to commoners. Peasants are joining the raznochinny intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom). In general, educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucracy, the bourgeoisie, the merchants and the peasantry, belonged to the commoners. This explains such an important feature of the culture of Russia in the 19th century, as the beginning of the process of its democratization. It is manifested in the fact that not only representatives of the privileged estates are gradually becoming cultural workers, although they continue to occupy a leading place. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from the underprivileged classes, in particular from the serf peasantry, but mainly from among the commoners, is increasing.

In the XIX century. literature is becoming the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated, first of all, by its close connection with the progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Answer" to this message from the Decembrist Odoevsky, the satire Ryleev "To the temporary worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "To the death of a poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in fact , political pamphlets, military, revolutionary appeals that inspired the progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive writers in Russia made Russian literature of that time one of the most active social forces.

Even against the background of all the richest world classics, Russian literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. One could say that she is like the Milky Way, clearly standing out in the star-strewn sky, if some of the writers who made her fame were not more like dazzling luminaries or independent "universes." The names of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy alone immediately evoke ideas about huge artistic worlds, a multitude of ideas and images, which are refracted in their own way in the minds of more and more generations of readers. The impressions produced by this "golden age" of Russian literature were beautifully expressed by T. Mann. Talking about her "extraordinary inner unity and integrity", "the close cohesion of her ranks, the continuity of her traditions." We can say that Pushkin's poetry and Tolstoy's prose are a miracle; it is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana was the intellectual capital of the world in the last century.

A. Pushkin was the founder of Russian realism, his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", which V. Belinsky called the encyclopedia of Russian life, was furious with the highest expression of realism in the work of the great poet.

Outstanding examples of realistic literature are the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky" and others. Pushkin's world significance is associated with the realization of the universal significance of the tradition he created. He paved the way for the literature of M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky and A. Chekhov, which rightfully became not only a fact of Russian culture, but also the most important moment in the spiritual development of mankind.

Pushkin's traditions were continued by his younger contemporary and successor M. Lermontov. The novel "A Hero of Our Time", in many respects consonant with Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin", is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov's realism. The work of M. Lermontov was the highest point in the development of Russian poetry in the post-Pushkin period and opened new paths in the evolution of Russian prose. Its main aesthetic reference point is the work of Byron and Pushkin of the period of "southern poems" (Pushkin's romanticism). Russian "Byronism" (this romantic individualism) is characterized by the cult of titanic passions and extreme situations, lyrical expression combined with philosophical self-deepening. Therefore, Lermontov's gravitation towards a ballad, a romance, a lyric-epic poem, in which a special place belongs to love, is understandable. Lermontov's method of psychological analysis, "dialectics of feelings", had a strong influence on subsequent literature.

The work of Gogol also developed in the direction from pre-romantic and romantic forms to realism, which turned out to be a decisive factor in the subsequent development of Russian literature. In his Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, the concept of Little Russia - this Slavic ancient Rome - is artistically implemented as a whole continent on the map of the universe, with Dikanka as its original center, as the focus of both national spiritual identity and national destiny. At the same time, Gogol is the founder of the "natural school" (the school of critical realism); by chance, the 30s - 40s of the last century N. Chernyshevsky called the Gogol period of Russian literature. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” Dostoevsky remarked figuratively, characterizing Gogol's influence on the development of Russian literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Gogol receives worldwide recognition and from that moment on becomes an active and ever-increasing value of the world artistic process, gradually realizing the deep philosophical potential of his work.

The work of the genius L. Tolstoy deserves special attention, which marked a new stage in the development of Russian and world realism, threw a bridge between the traditions of the classic novel of the 19th century. and literature of the XX century.

One of the most important was the local government reform known as zemstvo reform... January 1, 1864 was issued "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", in accordance with which the non-class elective bodies of local government were formed - zemstvos, elected by all estates for three years. Zemstvos consisted of administrative bodies (district and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive (district and provincial zemstvo councils).

Zemstvos had the right to hire zemstvo doctors, teachers, land surveyors and other employees. For the maintenance of zemstvo employees, there were certain taxes from the population. The jurisdiction of the zemstvos included a wide variety of local services: the construction and operation of roads, the postal department, public education, health care, and social protection of the population. All zemstvo institutions were under the control of local and central authorities - the governor and the minister of internal affairs. The narrowness of the social base of city self-government and tight control over it by the provincial presence made the reform limited. But in general for Russia, the creation of a system of local self-government in the form of zemstvos played a positive role in solving various problems at the local level.

Following the zemstvo reform, the country carried out and urban reform... In accordance with the "City Regulations" (1870), a system of city elected self-government was established in 509 cities. Instead of the previously existing estate city administrations, the city council, headed by the city government, began to be elected for four years. The mayor was at the same time the chairman of the city council and the city council. Not all citizens had the right to vote, but only those who corresponded to a fairly high property qualification: rich homeowners, merchants, industrialists, bankers, officials. The competence of the city duma and council included economic issues: improvement, order protection, local trade, health care, education, sanitary and fire protection of the population.

Since 1864, the country has conducted judicial reform, according to which an unclassified, open court with the participation of jurors, the legal profession and the adversarial nature of the parties were approved. A unified system of judicial institutions was created, proceeding from the formal equality before the law of all social groups of the population. And within the province, which constituted the judicial district, a district court was created. The Trial Chamber united several judicial districts. As a rule, decisions of the district court and the chambers of the courts, with the participation of jurors, were considered final and could only be appealed if the procedure was violated. The highest court of cassation was the Senate, which received appeals against court decisions. For the analysis of minor offenses and civil claims up to 500 rubles. in the counties and cities there was a magistrate's court. Justices of the peace were elected at district zemstvo assemblies.

In the 1860s, it took place and educational reform... In the cities, primary public schools were created, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural sciences, and obtaining practical skills in technology. In 1863, the university charter of 1803 was recreated, which was curtailed during the reign of Nicholas I, according to which the partial autonomy of universities and the election of rectors and deans were re-established. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the Higher Women's Courses with university programs. In this respect, Russia was ahead of many European countries.

In the 1860s-1870s, a military reform, the need for which was primarily due to the defeat in the Crimean War. First, the term of military service was reduced to 12 years. In 1874, recruitment was abolished and universal military service was established, which extended to the entire male population over the age of 20, without class distinctions. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the older one is in military service or has already served his term, was not subject to conscription for active service. The recruits from the peasants were taught not only military affairs, but also literacy, which made up for the lack of school education in the countryside.

Assessing the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not everything that was conceived in the early 1860s was realized. Many reforms have been limited, inconsistent, or incomplete. And yet they should be called truly "Great Reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all aspects of Russian life.

On the morning of March 1, 1881. a few hours before his death, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the State Council to discuss the draft, which was called the "constitution" of M.T. Loris-Melikova. But the death of the emperor prevented the implementation of these plans, the transition to a policy of counterreforms was historically a foregone conclusion. Russia was faced with a choice - either the continuation of bourgeois-liberal reforms up to the restructuring of the entire system of social relations, or, compensating for the costs of the policy of strengthening the estate and imperial foundations of statehood, take a course towards deep economic transformations.

The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system that could become an obstacle to the country's economic development. The change in the legal status of such a large group of the population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the emancipation of the peasants had to be complemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected bodies of self-government were created. Having relatively broad powers in the field of economic development, education, health care and culture, zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also tried to prevent coordination of the activities of the zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very noticeable role in the development of the Russian province. No less drastic changes took place thanks to the judicial reform (1864). It was, perhaps, most of all knocked out of the traditional framework of the Russian political system. All-estate, independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and adversarial proceedings, the participation of jurors - all these principles resolutely broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, the judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. In the direction of the liberalization of public life, other steps taken by the state also developed: softening censorship rules (1865), granting autonomy to universities (1863) and even military reform (1874), as a result of which not only universal military service was introduced and shortening of the terms of service, but also attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX century. made huge changes in the life of the country. They allowed Russia to get out of a protracted and deep crisis, noticeably accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a fairly long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its possibilities and more and more often it had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s - 70s. did not receive due completion in the form of a constant movement towards the complete democratization of society. Being a conservative option to respond to the challenge of the time, a reaction "from above", the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The government’s refusal to accept these changes led to an increase in radicalism in the social movement, which, in turn, created conditions for a new escalation of the crisis. New contradictions that were not resolved by the reforms of the 60s and 70s were superimposed on the contradictions generated by the post-reform reality and, thereby, intensified the conflict in the Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.

Zemskaya reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they said then) economy. Honey. there was practically no help in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the basic rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its embryonic state in any way. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about the country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was depleted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved, It was established for the leadership of households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food aid to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The provincial and district zemstvo assemblies were the ordering bodies of the zemstvo, and the district and provincial zemstvo councils were executive bodies. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Elections to zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each county, for the election of members of the county zemstvo assembly created. three elect. Congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dess. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by those elected from the volost gatherings. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. The county zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo.

As a rule, nobles prevailed in the zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landowners, the autocracy considered the local nobility its main support. Therefore, the zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Oblast, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos played a great positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when the network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a "third element" has appeared, as they began to call zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, statisticians. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. The peasants trusted them, the councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched with dismay the growing influence of the “third element”.

City reform of 1870 In 1870, according to the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out7 "0, which replaced the previous estate councils, created in accordance with the" Charter to cities "in 1785, with all-estate elected city institutions - city councils and city councils.

The right to vote in the City Duma was enjoyed by persons who have reached the age of 25 and who paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curiae... The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another third of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the large financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activities of the city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city council was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - a provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government during the time of Ec II. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad strata of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of a civil society and a legal state in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of the new judicial statutes adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: formal equality of all estates before the law; publicity of the court; independence of judges; adversarial nature of the prosecution and defense; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial charters, two systems of courts were created - peace and general.

The magistrates' courts tried minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, and in capitals - by city councils. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 dessiatines of land. At the same time, judges received rather high salaries - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles per year,

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. The consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. The jury could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 years with an impeccable personal characteristic, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Jury Lists governor.

The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, the appeal against the verdict passed by the jury was not allowed.

The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than a titular councilor (i.e., from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated to state. crimes and listened to with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be conducted openly, the public was allowed to attend, and newspapers published reports on courts of public interest. The adversarial principle was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy arose in Russian society.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal vestiges (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and high officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.

Liberal reforms 60-70 XIX centuries.

Goals:

To acquaint students with the reforms of the 60-70s, to show their liberal nature, on the one hand, and their limitations, on the other

Tasks:

Educational:

Continue work on the disclosure of historical terms and concepts, the formation of chronological knowledge.

Continue work on the formation of special and general educational skills and abilities, such as working with a historical document, notebook, didactic map.

Developing:

Develop skills to build, define concepts, analyze, analyze and solve problems

the development of students' abilities to establish relationships between historical phenomena;

Upbringing

Fostering patriotism for your homeland,

fostering a work culture

Lesson plan:

Homework check.

The great chain has broken,

Broke up and hit

One end for the master,

others - according to the man

What event are we talking about? (peasant reform of 1861)

What are line segments?

What are redemption payments?

What, in your opinion, is the historical significance of the peasant reform?

Learning new material.

The abolition of serfdom was followed by other reforms in the field of local government, courts, education, censorship, and military affairs, which are usually called liberal. In the lesson, we will look at three reforms: zemstvo reform, court reform, and military reform. Let's define their main content.

Work with documents in rows (5 minutes)

1 row zemstvo reform

2 row - judicial

3 row - military

In the course of work, students fill out the table "Reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century in Russia "

Judicial

Urban

Discussion: we listen to the answers of the students, then we discuss a number of questions:

Zemskaya reform.

In 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out, which established local self-government bodies in the country. The main contribution to its development was made by N. A. Milyutin and P. A. Valuev

What “cares” were assigned to the zemstvos? To what extent were the self-government bodies independent in their activities?

In the zemstvo school, the emphasis was mainly on the content side of education, on the assimilation of a certain amount of knowledge by students. The parish school put educational tasks, teaching the basics of Orthodoxy and Russian tradition at the forefront.

What school do you think the peasant will send his son to and to which of them will he donate money? Why?

In 1865, in 29 provinces, the provincial zemstvo assemblies comprised 74.2% of nobles and officials, 10.6% of peasants, 10.9% of merchants, 4.3% of other estates. Among the county vowels, 41.7% were nobles and officials, 388.4% were peasants, 10.4% were merchants, and 9.5% were other class groups of the population.

Lenin called the zemstvos "the fifth wheel in the cart," but at the same time admitted that "the zemstvo is a piece of the constitution" confirm that zemstvos were a representative form of government.

To what extent were the interests of various strata of the population reflected in them?

In 1870, according to the model of the Zemstvo reform, a reform of city self-government was carried out, the content of which, you will get to know at home on your own from a textbook.

Judicial reform.

In 1864, another important reform was carried out - the judicial one.

According to SI Zarudny, one of the active participants in the judicial reform, “under serfdom, in essence, there was no need for a fair trial. Only the landowners were real judges ... The time has come when for Russia, just like for any decent state, there was an urgent need for a quick and fair court "

What are the main principles proclaimed by the reform of 1864? what is new in the Russian judicial system?

Why is the question of jurors still relevant today?

Judicial reform is rightfully considered the most consistent among the reforms of the 60-70s. However, during its implementation, the vestiges of the estate were preserved, in particular, the volost court for the peasants and corporal punishment for them were preserved.

Military reform.

In the middle of the 60s. Minister of War D.A.Milyutin abolished corporal punishment in the army. In the course of the reform of military educational institutions, military gymnasiums and cadet schools were created. The system of higher military education expanded. Finally, in 1874, a new military regulation was adopted. Contemporaries called this event February 19, 1861 in the Russian army.

What are the main provisions of the charter, why did contemporaries give such an assessment to the named document?

However, in 1901, Lenin wrote: "In essence, we did not have and do not have universal military service, because the privileges of noble birth and wealth create a lot of exceptions."

Explain what caused such judgments? Give reasons for your opinion.

Explain the following figures: zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces of the empire, city dumas - in 509 cities, judicial reform was carried out only in 44 provinces. Why?

Is it fair to call the reforms of the 60-70s? "Great"?

How did these transformations affect daily life Russian society? How can you explain the words of the historian Klyuchevsky that the reforms, although slow, were sufficiently prepared for implementation, but the minds were less prepared for perception?

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lag behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy area. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.

In the domestic policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there are three stages:

1) the second half of the 50s - early 60s - preparation and implementation of the peasant reform;

2) - 60-70-ies of liberal reforms;

3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability using traditional conservative-administrative methods.

Defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost its international authority and nearly lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855, went down in history as the Tsar “The Liberator”. His phrase that “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to abolish from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of ​​the need to reform the state.

Members of the royal family, representatives of the higher bureaucracy - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev took part in the preparation of the reforms. After the abolition of the kr. Right, it became necessary to change the local government in 1864. zemstvo reform... Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in the provinces and counties. These were elected bodies from representatives of all classes. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curiae. 1 curia - landowners with> 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, city industrialists and merchants who had a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multi-stage. Landowners predominated in the curiae. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activity was limited to the solution of economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care of trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, which had the right to suspend any resolution of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: it is a legislative and executive body. The leaders were the local leaders of the nobility. Provincial and district assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district governments were elected at the zemstvo meetings. We solved the problem of collecting taxes, while a certain% remained in place. Zemsky institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

Positiveness in reform:

All-class

Flaws:

Electivity

The beginning of the separation of powers is admitted to the center of the state institution,

The beginning of the formation of civil society / consciousness, the society could not influence the policy of the center

Unequal voting rights were delivered

Contacts between zemstvos were prohibited

Urban reform... (1870) "City status" created all-estates bodies in cities - city councils and city councils headed by the city mayor. They were involved in the improvement of the city, care for trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role was played by the big bourgeoisie. Was under the strict control of the government administration.

The mayor was approved by the governor.

Judicial reform :

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Positions:

the estate system of courts was eliminated

equality of all before the law was declared

the publicity of the proceedings was introduced

adversarial procedure

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

unified court system

A court of two types has been created:

1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were selected at county assemblies and approved by the Senate.

2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court... Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The highest court became Senate... Judges to general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were chosen at provincial assemblies.

Flaws: small estate courts continued to exist for peasants. A special presence of the Senate was created for political processes, closed sessions were held, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform :

1874 - Charter on military service on all-class military service for men who have reached 20 years of age. The term of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. The recruiting service was canceled. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served for 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the War Department was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military districts. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery guns, the improvement of the equestrian fleet, the development of a military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time to raise its combat effectiveness.

They were exempted from military service if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if they were supported by elderly parents. The cane discipline was abolished. The humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education :

1864 In fact, an accessible all-class education was introduced. Along with the state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday and private schools arose. The gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in the gymnasiums was determined by the universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, women's secondary education was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free listeners. University sample: Alexander 2 gave universities a lot of freedom:

students could create student org-tions

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

studios were given the right to choose the rector

self-control student was introduced in the form of advice of fact

systems of corporativeness of students and teachers were created.

The meaning of the reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation in Russian society bourgeois freedoms (freedom of speech, individual, organization, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and to transform Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civil consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the "liberal bureaucracy." This explains the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The assassination of Alexander II changed the course of government. And Loris-Melikov's offer was rejected.

The reforms provided an impetus for the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation intensified, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew.

The features of the development of capitalism in Russian industry had a number of features:

1) Industry wore multistage character, i.e. large machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production.

2) uneven industrial distribution across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0 - highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, Central Asia, the Far East.

3)Uneven development by industry... Textile production was the most advanced in technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was gaining rapid pace. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. State intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies was characteristic of the country. This laid the foundation for the formation of the system of state capitalism. The lack of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, therefore, the possibility of high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century. the formation of the all-Russian market was completed. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Forest, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Imported (import) cotton from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. Public funds were allocated only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 was the first stage when the industry was restructuring. 80-90 economic recovery.