Tongue Twisters

Characteristics of austro hungary at the beginning of the 20th century. Hungary in the late XX - early XXI century. "In separate apartments"

Austria in XX century

World War I.

The news of the outbreak of war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of an offensive by the Russian army rallied the Austrians, and even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda inspired the will to win and largely dampened interethnic contradictions. The unity of the state was ensured by a harsh military dictatorship, the disaffected were forced to obey. Only in the Czech Republic, the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely ineffectively.

Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the morale of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings have been converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased the fervor of war, especially among the Slovenes. When the territorial claims of Romania to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the side of the Entente.

It was at the very moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a disabled man, pushed aside the people on whom his predecessor relied. In 1917, Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded the reform of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, while others insisted on complete secession. Patriotic sentiments forced the Czechs to desert from the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramarz was sentenced to death on charges of high treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917, the emperor announced an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation lowered his authority among the belligerent Austro-Germans: the monarch was reproached for being too soft.

Even before Charles's accession to the throne, the Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. The pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Viktor Adler, assassinated the Austrian Prime Minister, Count Karl Stürgk, in October 1916. At the trial, Adler harshly criticized the government. Sentenced to a lengthy prison sentence, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.

End of the Hapsburg dynasty.

A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian townspeople to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, workers in the military factories went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, in which the participants raised a red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the ringleaders.

Sentiments of separatism grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czecho-Slovaks (headed by Tomasz Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees were campaigning in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the United States recognized these émigré groups as de facto governments. In October 1918, national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of the lands and territories. The promise of Emperor Charles to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of federalism accelerated the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians created the provisional government of German Austria, and the Social Democrats campaigned for a republic. Charles I abdicated power on November 11, 1918. The Austrian Republic was proclaimed the next day.

First Austrian Republic (1918-1938).

Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint Germain (1919), the new Austrian state had a small territory and a German-speaking population. Areas with German populations in Bohemia and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia, and Austria was forbidden to unite with the newly created German (Weimar) Republic. Large areas in southern Tyrol inhabited by the Germans were taken over by Italy. Austria received from Hungary the eastern land of Burgenland.

The constitution of the Austrian Republic, adopted in 1920, provided for the introduction of the presidency with representative functions, a bicameral legislature, the lower house of which was to be elected by the entire adult population of the country. The government, headed by the chancellor, was responsible to parliament. New Austria was actually a federation, the population of the city of Vienna and eight states elected land assemblies (Landtags), which enjoyed broad rights of self-government.

Second republic.

Freed from the Nazi yoke, the Austrians strove for independence and the restoration of the original name of the country - Austria. With the permission of the occupying authorities, the Second Republic was created. Social Democracy veteran Karl Renner was appointed Chancellor of the Provisional Government to lead the process of restoring the democratic order. An experienced politician respected by all, Renner, as chancellor, and then president of the republic, contributed a lot to the establishment of order and stability in the country. In April 1945, he formed an interim government, which included representatives of his own Socialist Party (formerly Social Democratic), the People's Party (as the Christian Social Party became known) and the communists. The constitutional order that existed before the dictatorship of Dollfuss was restored. The powers and legislative power of the new Austrian government expanded step by step. Mandatory participation in elections was introduced, and refusal to vote could be punishable by a fine or even imprisonment.

In the November 1945 elections, the Austrian People's Party (ANP) won 85 seats in parliament, the Socialist Party (SPA) - 76, and the Communists - 4 seats. Subsequently, this balance of forces changed little, the communists lost all their seats in 1959. In 1949, a right-wing extremist group, the Union of the Independent, was created (in 1955 it was transformed into the Austrian Freedom Party, APS).

Revival of the economy.

In 1945, the Austrian economy was in a state of chaos. The destruction and impoverishment caused by the war, the influx of refugees and displaced persons, the transition of military enterprises to the production of peaceful products, shifts in world trade and the existence of borders between the zones of occupation of the allies - all this created seemingly insurmountable obstacles to economic recovery. For three years, most of the inhabitants of Austrian cities fought desperately to survive. The occupation authorities helped in organizing the supply of food. Thanks to a good harvest in 1948, food rationing was relaxed, and two years later, all food restrictions were lifted.

In the western zones of occupation, aid under the Marshall Plan and other programs yielded rapid results. The nationalization of the three largest Austrian banks and nearly 70 industrial concerns (coal mining, steel, energy, engineering and river transport) in 1946-1947 gave significant economic advantages. Revenues from state-owned enterprises were used to further develop the industry. The ANP proposed allowing elements of private ownership in the nationalized sector of the economy by selling part of the shares to smallholders, while the socialists called for the expansion of the sphere of state ownership.

Radical monetary reform has stabilized and accelerated economic recovery. Foreign tourists have emerged - a vital source of government revenue. The railway stations destroyed during the bombing have been rebuilt. In 1954, the volume of products manufactured by factories and mines exceeded the level of 1938, harvests in fields and vineyards, and logging practically returned to their previous level.

Revival of culture.

With the recovery of the economy, the revival of culture began. Theaters, musical performances and the development of the arts in the city and province were now funded by the state rather than wealthy patrons of the arts. In Vienna, the main efforts were focused on the restoration of the Cathedral of St. Stefan, and in 1955 the opera house and the Burgtheater were reopened. A second opera house, in Salzburg, opened in 1960.

Austrian schools of all levels resumed their activities, cleared of the influence of the Nazis. In addition to the universities in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck, the University of Salzburg was founded in 1964. Newspapers, magazines and books were published again.

State contract.

Allied occupation troops were stationed in Austria for 10 years. In 1943, at a meeting in Moscow, the leaders of the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States announced their intention to re-establish Austria as an independent, sovereign and democratic state. Until 1948, when Yugoslavia was excluded from the Soviet bloc, Moscow supported Yugoslavia's claims to the border part of Austrian territory. In March 1955, the Kremlin changed its position and invited the Austrian government to send a delegation to Moscow to determine the timing of the conclusion of the State Treaty, which was signed already on May 15, 1955. The State Treaty was signed in Vienna in an atmosphere of great jubilation.

The state treaty restored the independence and full sovereignty of Austria. It entered into force on July 27, 1955, after which the Allied troops were withdrawn from the country. On October 26, 1955, following the withdrawal of the last foreign military units, the government approved a federal constitutional law proclaiming the permanent neutrality of Austria and excluding the possibility of joining any military alliances or the creation of foreign military bases in Austria.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed in 1867 on the basis of an agreement between the ruling elite of the two countries.

The Austrian Empire included the Czech Republic, Moravia, Galicia and Bukovina, and Hungary - Slovakia, Croatia and Transylvania.

In the same year, a new constitution for the empire was adopted. According to her, the general ruler of the empire was the emperor of Austria. The emperor was a representative of the Habsburg dynasty. This dynasty led the empire from 1867 to 1918. During the formation of the empire, the emperor was Franz Joseph II.

In Austria, imperial power was officially limited by the Reichstag, and in Hungary - by the Seim. Consequently, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a constitutional monarchy.

After the creation of the empire, 3 general imperial ministries were formed: 1. Foreign Affairs. 2. Naval. 3. Financial. The rest of the ministries functioned independently for each of the two parts of the empire. Hungary had its own parliament, executive power, political and administrative autonomy. The majority of the empire's population consisted of the conquered Slavic peoples.

Economic development of Austria-Hungary

In the last quarter of the 19th century, Austria-Hungary was one of the most backward countries in Europe. The preserved vestiges of feudalism in the country led to a slowdown in the rate of industrial progress in comparison with the advanced countries of Europe.

In the 90s, the urban population accounted for only one third of the total population of Austria-Hungary. Even in Austria, the most developed part of the empire, the majority of the population was rural.

The Austro-Hungarian agreement, concluded in 1867, became a certain impetus for the economic development of Hungary. On the basis of the coal base of Hungary, the metallurgical industry began to develop. But the main industry in Hungary was still the food industry. In 1898, Hungary produced half of the empire's food products.

In the industrial regions of the country - Lower Austria and the Czech Republic - the process of concentration of production and the formation of monopolies proceeded rapidly.
By the beginning of the 20th century, loan capital was concentrated mainly in a few large banks in Vienna. The role of the financial oligarchy in the life of the country has grown.

Another characteristic feature of the empire's progress was its growing dependence on foreign capital. Banks in France, Belgium, Germany have flooded Austria with their capital by investing in industry. Such industries of Austria-Hungary as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, etc., were financially supported by German firms. The position of German capital in textile and machine-building enterprises was very strong. German capital also burst into agriculture. 200,000 hectares of land in Austria belonged to German landowners.

Social movement

The working people of the empire fought for their rights. For example, in 1869, a mass demonstration of workers was held in the capital of the empire, Vienna. The demonstrators demanded the granting of democratic freedoms.
In response, the government accused the leaders of the labor movement of betrayal. The court sentenced them to lengthy imprisonment.
The Austrian government, following the example of Bismarck, in 1884 introduced an "emergency law" against the labor movement. The law permitted an increase in police terror against the labor movement. By the end of the 1980s, trade unions were disbanded, and the publication of workers' newspapers was suspended. Despite this, the workers continued to fight. For example, in 1889 the Austrian Social Democratic Party (ASDP) was created. The party's program included provisions such as the provision of political freedoms, the adoption of a law on the election of parliament by general, equal, direct and secret ballot, separation of church from state, school from church, and shorter working hours.
Due to the intensification of the labor movement in 1907, the government was forced to pass a law on electoral reform. Men from the age of 24 have received voting rights.

National liberation movement

Chauvinistic forces, striving to preserve the colonial position of the Slavic peoples, created their own political parties. One of these parties was called the Pan-German Union, and the other was called the Christian Socialist Party.

The Christian Socialist Party, most of whom were Austrian Catholics, propagated the idea of "Greater Germany" along with the agitation of class peace, a call for the solution of all social contradictions "in the spirit of commonwealth and love" and the propaganda of anti-Semitism. But the ruling circles were unable to stop the national liberation movement of the Slavic people.

The Czech opposition demanded that the Czech Republic be granted political rights. The government responded by stepping up its repression. In 1868, a blockade was even introduced in the Czech Republic. But this did not break the Czech opposition. The struggle continued, and finally, in 1880, bilingualism was introduced in the Czech Republic for the conduct of judicial and administrative matters. In 1882, studies in two languages (German and Czech) began at the University of Prague.

The Ukrainian population in Galicia was also under national oppression. The Austrian government, having concluded an agreement with the ruling classes of Galicia, provided them with the leadership of the region.

In the last decades of the 19th century, national oppression increased even more. The Ukrainian population in Transcarpathia was "Hungarian". Croatia was constantly under martial law or a state of emergency, and popular discontent was suppressed.

The government responded to the Croatian national liberation movement in 1912 by dissolving the Croatian Sejm and suspending the constitution.

Economic crisis

In 1912, a severe economic crisis began in Austria-Hungary. As a result, large industrial and commercial enterprises went bankrupt. The export potential of the empire sharply decreased. The ruling circles of the empire further intensified national oppression, as a result of which the economic and national liberation struggle intensified.
Despite the difficult situation, the ruling circles of the empire began to actively participate in the aggressive policy of Austria in the Balkans. The army was reformed. This meant that the empire was preparing for war. In the capital of Hungary - Budapest, a demonstration of many thousands was held against the unification of the country, national oppression and preparations for war.

General discontent led to massive workers' strikes. Police forces were sent against the demonstrators. As a result, Budapest was filled with barricades. But the forces were not equal, and the workers were forced to suspend the strike.

The social movement and the national liberation struggle of the Slavic peoples that were part of the empire marked the entry of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into a deep crisis period.

In the ruling circles of the country and in political organizations, the idea of trialism began to spread widely. The idea of trials meant the transformation of the empire into a federation that included Austria, Hungary and the lands of the Slavic peoples that were part of the empire, uniting all three countries on an equal basis. But the ruling circles, fearing the strengthening of the Slavic part of the federation, rejected the idea of trialism.

This became the reason for the aggravation of the internal contradictions of the empire on the eve of the First World War.

Federation (lat. Foederatio - union, association) is a single union state, consisting of state formations that have a certain and political independence in a territorial sense.
Loan - the provision of something on the terms of the guarantor, return of the provided and payment

Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th centuries

1) Domestic policy: aggravation of social and national problems.

2) Foreign policy: the struggle for a place among the leading powers.

3) Preparation of Austria-Hungary for the First World War and the reasons for the collapse of the empire.

Literature: Shimov J. Austro-Hungarian Empire. M. 2003 (bibliography of the issue, p.
Posted on ref.rf
603-605).

1. The transformation of the unified Austrian empire into (dualistic) Austria-Hungary in 1867 allowed the country to maintain its position among the great powers. In December 1867, a liberal constitution was adopted. Emperor Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) had to abandon absolutist illusions and become a constitutional ruler. It seemed that the state avoided collapse, but it immediately had to face new problems: social conflicts, a sharp exacerbation of the national question.

The national question was the most acute. At the same time, the Austrian Germans were unhappy with the compromise of 1867. A small, but very noisy National Party (Georg von Schonereir) appears in the country. The core of the party's program was Pan-Germanism and support for the Hohenzollern dynasty as the unifier of all Germans. Schonereir invented a new tactic of political struggle - not participation in parliamentary life, but noisy street demonstrations and violent actions. Party members raided the editorial office of a Viennese newspaper, which mistakenly announced the death of Wilhelm I. This tactic was later adopted by Hitler's party.

A more influential political force was another party of Austrian Germans - the Christian Socialists (Karl Luger). Program:

1. Exposing the vices of a liberal society that does not care about the poor.

2. Sharp criticism of the ruling elite, merged with the trade and financial oligarchy.

3. Calls to fight against the dominance of the Jewish plutocracy.

4. Struggle against socialists and Marxists leading Europe to revolution.

The social support of the party was the petty bourgeoisie, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, part of the peasantry, rural priests, and part of the intelligentsia. In 1895, Christian socialists won the elections for the Vienna City Council. Luger was elected Burgostrom of Vienna. This was opposed by Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was irritated by the popularity, xenophobia and anti-Semitism of Luger. He refused three times to approve the election results and surrendered only in April-1897, having received from Luger a promise to act within the framework of the constitution. Luger kept his promise, dealing exclusively with economic issues and constantly demonstrating loyalty, he even abandoned anti-Semitism ("who is a Jew here, I decide"). Luger becomes the leader and idol of the Austrian middle class.

The workers, urban and rural poor followed the Social Democrats (SDPA). The leader is Viktor Adler, who completely reformed the party. 1888 - the party declares itself with massive actions: the organization of the "March of the Hungry", the organization of the first actions on May 1. The attitude towards the Social Democrats in Austria-Hungary is better than in Germany. Franz Joseph I saw the Social Democrats as allies in the struggle against the nationalists. A personal meeting between Adler and the emperor, where he and Karl Renner proposed to the emperor their concept of solving the national question (project of federalization of the monarchy):

1. Divide the empire into separate national regions with broad autonomy in the field of internal self-government (Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia, Transylvania, Croatia).

2. Create a cadastre of nationalities, give the right to every resident to register in it. He can use his native language in everyday life and in contacts with the state (all languages must be declared equal in the daily life of citizens).

3. All peoples should be granted broad cultural autonomy.

4. The central government should be in charge of the development of a general economic strategy, defense and foreign policy of the state.

The project was utopian, but by order of the emperor, it began to be implemented in two provinces - Moravia and Bukovina. Strong protest from Austrian Germans and Hungarians. Such a close rapprochement between the leaders of the socialists and the emperor caused a sharp protest from the Social Democrats and led to a split in this party. Adler's opponents ironically called them "Imperial and Royal Socialists". SDPA is actually falling apart into several socialist parties.

Nationalism had a disastrous effect on the unity of the empire. After the recognition of Hungary's rights, Czech provinces (Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia) began to claim such rights. Czech Republic is the third most developed after Austria and Hungary. The Czechs demanded not only cultural, but also national-state autonomy.

Back in the early 70s of the XIX century, the Czech elite split into two groups - old and young. The former soon founded their own national party, led by František Palacky and Rieger. The main point is the restoration of the "historical rights of the Czech crown", the creation of trialism. The government is ready to negotiate. In 1871, the head of the Austrian government, Count Hohenwart, achieved an agreement with the elders on granting the Czech lands wide internal autonomy, leaving Vienna with supreme sovereignty. The Austrian Germans and Hungarians opposed it. The "Compromise of Hohenwart" condemns the emperor's entourage. Franz Joseph retreated. On October 30, 1871, he transferred the solution of this issue to the lower house, where opponents of Czech autonomy prevailed. The question is buried, the resignation of Hohenwart. This intensified the activities of the Young Chechens, who in 1871 created their own “National Liberal Party” (K. Sladkovsky, Grehr). If the elders boycotted the elections to the Reichstag, then the young ones abandon this policy. In 1879, they entered into a coalition in parliament with the Austrian and Polish conservative deputies ("The Iron Ring"), thus winning a parliamentary majority. Political support was provided to the Austrian Prime Minister E. Taaffe (1879-1893). ʼʼThe era of Taaffeʼʼ - the time of the greatest political stability, economic growth and cultural flourishing. Taaffe played on national contradictions. "Different peoples must be kept in a state of constant slight discontent." But as soon as he came up with a project to democratize the electoral system, the bloc that supported him collapsed. Aristocrats of all nationalities and liberal German nationalists were not ready to admit to parliament representatives of “unprivileged peoples”, primarily Slavs, as well as social democrats. In 1893, anti-German and anti-Habsburg demonstrations swept through the Slavic cities. Reason for Taaffe's resignation. All subsequent governments have to solve a very complex national problem. On the one hand, the reform of the electoral system was inevitable, on the other, the government could not lose the support of the Austrian Germans. Germans (35% of the population) provided 63% of the tax collection. The Badoni government (1895-1897) fell due to an attempt to introduce bilingualism in the Czech Republic. Czech cities are again swept by a wave of unrest. German politicians (von Monsen) called on the Austrian Germans not to surrender to the Slavs. Russia tacitly supported the struggle of the Slavs, relying on the Young Chechens. In the western part of the monarchy (Tsisleitania), universal suffrage was introduced in 1907, opening the way to parliament for both the Slavs and the Social Democrats. The struggle flares up with renewed vigor.

In addition to the Czech issue, there were other acute national problems in Austria-Hungary. In the South Slavic lands - Pan-Slavism, in Galicia - strife between Polish landowners and Ukrainian peasants, South Tyrol and Istria (700 thousand Italians) were swept by the movement for annexation to Italy (irredentism).

National issues have continually raised new questions for the government. Franz Joseph I was a master of the political compromise "Josephinism", but he struggled at all times with consequences, not causes.

2. From the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century, there were 3 basic problems in the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary:

1. Close alliance with Germany.

2. Careful advance to the Balkans.

3. Striving to avoid another big war.

An alliance with Germany was necessary for Vienna in order to ensure advancement in the Balkans and neutralize Russia's influence there. Prussia needed Austrian support to oppose France. It remains to oppose something to the influence of Great Britain. Bismarck invites Franz Joseph and Alexander II to conclude the "Union of Three Emperors" (1873). however, the rivalry between St. Petersburg and Vienna in the Balkans significantly weakened this alliance. Austria-Hungary lost the ability to influence the affairs of Germany and Italy. She did not have colonies and did not seek to acquire them. It could only strengthen its position in the Balkans. She is frightened by the possibility of Russia using Pan-Slavism to strike at the Ottoman Empire. Vienna takes a course to support the Turks.

In 1875 the situation in the Balkans deteriorated sharply. The uprising of the Slavs in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks brutally suppressed the uprisings. In Russia, the public demands from the tsar to provide decisive support to the Slavic brothers. Franz Joseph I and his foreign minister, Count Gyula Androssy, hesitated: they did not want to push Turkey away. Bismarck advised to negotiate with Russia on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans. In January-March 1877, the Austro-Russian diplomatic agreements were signed (Vienna received freedom of action in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for benevolent neutrality during the Russian-Turkish war). The San Stefano Peace Treaty of 1878 provided for the creation of an independent Bulgaria, the strengthening of Montenegro and Serbia. In Vienna, this was regarded as a violation of the agreement. During the Berlin Congress of 1878, Austria received permission from the great powers to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina while formally maintaining Turkish sovereignty. The territories of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro were cut. Triumph of Androshi's politics. The only time Austria-Hungary acquired land, but did not lose it.

Disadvantages of this acquisition: the new lands were poor, the existence of significant social and national problems. These lands became the "apple of discord" between Vienna and St. Petersburg. The "Alliance of the Three Emperors" was dealt a fatal blow.
Posted on ref.rf
This throws Austria into the closest alliance with Germany. On October 7, 1879, a secret Austro-German agreement was signed in Vienna. Franz Joseph I finally falls into the sphere of influence of William I and Bismarck.

After the accession to the throne of Emperor Alexander III, Bismarck pushed Franz Joseph I to renew the “Union of Three Emperors”, but the Bulgarian question (the Austro-German protégé ceased to suit Russia) finally buried this union. Austria was able to significantly strengthen its position in Serbia, whose economy fell completely under Austrian control. The Serbian prince (king since 1881) Milos Abrenovich, who was entangled in debt, offered Franz Joseph to “buy” Serbia, but he refused, fearing the preponderance of the Slavs in Austria-Hungary. Bismarck pushed Austria to improve relations with Italy. In his opinion, Italy, in the event of a new Franco-German war, could divert part of the French forces to itself. On May 20, 1882, the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy is concluded in Vienna. Italy is the weak link, withdrew from the union in 1912ᴦ. but until then her

assistance allowed Vienna to strengthen its advance in the Balkans.

After the death of William I and the resignation of Bismarck, Germany also began to look at the Balkans. This prompted Franz Joseph and his Foreign Minister Count Golukhovsky to turn their attention again to improving relations with Russia. The rapprochement of the two countries was facilitated by the death of Alexander III and the accession to the throne of Nicholas II. During 1896-1897, the parties exchanged official state visits, agreements were concluded on non-interference with each other in the south-east of Europe. But this improvement in relations did not cancel Vienna's desire to completely annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia wanted to gain control over the Black Sea straits. The Austrian General Staff in the late 1890s began to develop plans for a war with Russia.

On June 11, 1903, a coup d'etat took place in Serbia. King Alexander Abrenovich and his wife Draga were overthrown and killed by conspiratorial officers ("People's Defense" and "Black Hand"). King Peter I of Karadjordievich, who sympathized with the ideas of Pan-Slavism and Russia, ascended the throne. Austrian influence in Serbia begins to wane. The Austrian government tried to change the situation with a customs war (pig), but the Serbs quickly found other trading partners such as France, Germany and Bulgaria, and Austria finally lost the Serbian market. The Serbs, with the support of Russia, begin to put forward claims about the creation of a "Great Serbia" with the inclusion of Bosnia and Herzegovina (occupied by the Austrians since 1878), as well as all Austrian lands inhabited by Slavs (Slovenia).

The situation in the Balkans was rapidly heating up ("powder keg of Europe"). Three basic problems:

10.the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence

11.contradictions between young, independent states: Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece were at enmity because of Macedonia, and Romania and Bulgaria because of Dobrudja (an area in the lower Danube)

12. Serbia and Italy claimed dominion over the Albanian lands, which worried Austria-Hungary.

Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909ᴦ.

The war with Serbia inevitably meant a clash between Austria and Russia. It was extremely important for Vienna to win Berlin's support, but Berlin did not want to spoil relations with Serbia, since Germany began to actively develop the Serbian market. Vienna tried to attract Turkey to the union, but Turkey was weakened by the Young Turkish revolution of 1908ᴦ.

In this situation, the new Austrian Foreign Minister Baron (and then Count) Alois Lexa von Ehrenthal (1906-1912) set a course for the complete annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was a strategically important part of the Balkan Peninsula, inhabited by Orthodox Serbs (42%), Catholic Croats (21%) and Bosniaks (34%, Muslim Slavs). The Austrians were forced to act immediately by the events in Turkey, where parliamentary elections were scheduled after the successful revolution of 1908. On August 19, 1908, at a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers, Erental declared the extreme importance of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was supported by the chief of the Austrian General Staff, General Konrad von Goetzendorff, and the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand d "Este.

Emperor Franz Joseph I hesitated, fearing Russia's displeasure, but Erenthal was able to come to an agreement with the Russian Foreign Minister Izvolsky, who promised not to oppose the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in response, Erenthal promised to support St. Petersburg's demand to revise the status of the Black Sea Straits. Erenthal knew that Great Britain would strongly oppose this. And so it happened. Izvolsky's mission to London ended unsuccessfully. And on October 6, Franz Joseph I announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This caused indignation in Serbia, and in St. Petersburg Izvolsky is sharply criticized in the State Duma. He justifies himself, claiming that Erenthal deceived him without specifying the exact date of the annexation, but the documents caught him in a lie. Petersburg felt deceived, but this acquisition also brought new difficulties to Vienna:

7. Berlin was extremely offended by the fact that France learned about the annexation earlier than Germany, due to the negligence of the ambassador in Paris, Kevenhüller.

8. Turkey did not accept this loss and declared a boycott of all Austrian goods on the Turkish market. Turkey was able to calm down only at the expense of a huge compensation of 54 million marks.

9. Belgrade announces the mobilization of reservists and increases the military budget by 16 million dinars.

Serbia hoped for help from Russia, but Russia, weakened by the revolution of 1905-1907, could not fight. From St. Petersburg they tried to calm down the Serbs in every possible way, promising that Serbia would receive compensation for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Erenthal categorically refuses this, claiming that the Serbs have not lost anything. Vienna turns to Berlin for help, but Berlin is not going to fight either. Chancellor Bülow appeals to St. Petersburg with a proposal not to object to this annexation. If his proposal was not accepted, Bülow threatened to “leave events in their natural course”. Petersburg was forced to retreat. London also influenced the Serbs to make them come to terms with this loss. On March 31, 1909, Serbia officially agreed to recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina. Erenthal won, but this only added problems to Vienna:

1) The Treasury suffered significant material losses associated with compensation for Turkey and the mobilization of reservists.

2) The hostility of Russia is acutely manifested.

3) Hostility towards Austria is growing among the Bosnian Serbs.

4) Austrian Germans and Hungarians are extremely unhappy with the sharp increase in the Slavic population of the Empire.

But there were also advantages of this accession. In particular, the alliance between Austria and Germany was significantly strengthened. Germany even for some time went in line with the Austrian policy (Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909).

3. The time ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ preceded the First World War, for Austria it is an almost continuous chain of large and small crises. The rivalry between the Entente and the Triple Alliance is becoming ever more acute. Moreover, in each of these blocks there was no internal unity.

By 1911 Vienna had finally come under the influence of Berlin, and Erenthal died in 1912 of leukemia. After that, the Austrian military elite strengthens its positions, and Goetzendorf returns to the post of chief of the General Staff. In 1912 the Balkan problem escalated. The Ottoman Empire is falling apart, losing one province after another. In the summer of 1912 Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro created the Balkan Union directed against Turkey. From October 1912 to June 1913, the first Balkan War was fought. Turkey has lost almost all of its territories in the Balkan Peninsula. In Austria, this aroused shock and suspicion of Russia's intensification. But having barely won a victory in Turkey, the victors quarreled over the issue of Macedonia. In June 1913, the Second Balkan War begins against the aggression of Bulgaria by Serbia, Greece and Romania in alliance with Turkey. Bulgaria was defeated, losing most of the conquered territory, and Turkey was able to retain a small part of its European possessions, centered in Adrianople (Edirne). Austria-Hungary decided to use the results of the Second Balkan War to weaken Serbia. Vienna supported the idea of creating an independent Albania, hoping that this state would be under the Austrian protectorate. Russia, backing Serbia, began to concentrate troops on the Austrian border. Austria does the same. It was about the prestige of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, without which it was impossible to solve the internal national question, but the position of Great Britain and Germany temporarily postpones the big war. For a while, the interests of these states intersect. Both in that and in the other country believed that it was foolish to start a war because of the minor conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Britain did not want to lose the profitable trade in the Mediterranean and feared for the path of communication with the eastern colonies. Germany is actively developing the young Balkan states. Under the joint pressure of the great powers, Serbia agrees to create a formally independent Albania. The crisis of 1912 was resolved. But in Vienna the feeling of defeat reigns. Causes:

6. Serbia has not lost its position in the Balkans and has retained its claims to the unification of the Balkan Slavs. Austro-Serbian relations were hopelessly ruined.

7. The clash between Romania and Bulgaria destroyed the fragile system of relations beneficial to Austria.

8. Between Austria-Hungary and Italy there are more and more contradictions that threatened the collapse of the Triple Alliance.

The abundance of insoluble problems makes Austria-Hungary hope only for a big war. The aged Emperor Franz Joseph I did not want war, but he was unable to restrain ethnic strife (Austrian Germans, Hungarian elite - Slavs are unhappy). Many of the Austrian politicians saw a way out of the situation in the transfer of the throne to the heir to Archduceg Franz Ferdinand (from 1913 he was appointed to the most important military post of inspector general of the armed forces). He spoke in favor of improving relations with Russia and at the same time was strongly anti-Hungarian.

In June 1914, he went on maneuvers to Bosnia. After finishing the maneuvers, he visited the Bosnian capital Sarajevo. Here he and his wife Countess Sophia von Hohenberg were killed on June 28 by the Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip from the Black Hand organization. This pushes Vienna to present an ultimatum to Serbia, which becomes the formal reason for the outbreak of the First World War. Participation in the war aggravated the internal problems of the Empire to the limit and led to its collapse in 1918ᴦ.

Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th centuries - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Austria-Hungary in the late XIX - early XX century" 2017, 2018.

1) Domestic policy: aggravation of social and national problems.

2) Foreign policy: the struggle for a place among the leading powers.

3) Preparation of Austria-Hungary for the First World War and the reasons for the collapse of the empire.

Literature: Shimov J. Austro-Hungarian Empire. M. 2003 (bibliography of the issue, pp. 603-605).

1. Conversion of a unified Austrian empire in (dualistic) Austria-Hungary in 1867 allowed the country to maintain its position among the great powers. In December 1867, a liberal constitution was adopted. Emperor Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) had to abandon absolutist illusions and become a constitutional ruler. It seemed that the state avoided collapse, but it immediately had to face new problems: social conflicts, a sharp exacerbation of the national question.

The national question was the most acute. At the same time, the Austrian Germans were unhappy with the compromise of 1867. A small, but very noisy National Party (Georg von Schonereir) appears in the country. The core of the party's program was Pan-Germanism and support for the Hohenzollern dynasty as the unifier of all Germans. Schonereir invented a new tactic of political struggle - not participation in parliamentary life, but noisy street demonstrations and violent actions. Party members raided the editorial office of a Viennese newspaper, which mistakenly announced the death of William I. This tactic was later adopted by Hitler's party.

A more influential political force was another party of Austrian Germans - the Christian Socialists (Karl Luger).

Program:

1. Exposing the vices of a liberal society that does not care about the poor.

2. Sharp criticism of the ruling elite, merged with the trade and financial oligarchy.

3. Calls to fight against the dominance of the Jewish plutocracy.

4. Struggle against socialists and Marxists leading Europe to revolution.

The social support of the party was the petty bourgeoisie, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, part of the peasantry, rural priests, and part of the intelligentsia. In 1895, the Christian Socialists won the elections for the Vienna City Council. Luger was elected Burgostrom of Vienna. This was opposed by Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was irritated by the popularity, xenophobia and anti-Semitism of Luger. He refused three times to approve the election results and surrendered only in April 1897, having received from Luger a promise to act within the framework of the constitution. Luger kept his promise, dealing exclusively with economic issues and constantly demonstrating loyalty, he even renounced anti-Semitism ("who is a Jew here, I decide"). Luger becomes the leader and idol of the Austrian middle class.

The workers, urban and rural poor followed the Social Democrats (SDPA). The leader is Viktor Adler, who completely reformed the party. 1888 - the party declares itself with massive actions: the organization of "marches of the hungry", the organization of the first actions on May 1. The attitude towards the Social Democrats in Austria-Hungary is better than in Germany. Franz Joseph I saw the Social Democrats as allies in the struggle against the nationalists.

Adler's personal meeting with the emperor, where he and Karl Renner proposed to the emperor their concept of solving the national question ( draft federalization of the monarchy):

1. Divide the empire into separate national regions with broad autonomy in the field of internal self-government (Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia, Transylvania, Croatia).

3. All peoples should be granted broad cultural autonomy.

4. The central government should be in charge of the development of a general economic strategy, defense and foreign policy of the state.

The project was utopian, but by order of the emperor, it began to be implemented in two provinces - Moravia and Bukovina. Strong protest from Austrian Germans and Hungarians. Such a close rapprochement between the leaders of the socialists and the emperor caused a sharp protest from the Social Democrats and led to a split in this party. Adler's opponents ironically called them "the imperial and royal socialists." SDPA is actually falling apart into several socialist parties.

Back in the early 70s. XIX century. the Czech elite split into two groups - old and young. The former soon founded their own national party, led by František Palacky and Rieger. The main point is the restoration of the "historical rights of the Czech crown", the creation of trialism. The government is ready to negotiate. In 1871, the head of the Austrian government, Count Hohenwart, achieved an agreement with the elders on granting the Czech lands wide internal autonomy, leaving Vienna with supreme sovereignty. The Austrian Germans and Hungarians opposed it.

The "Hohenwart Compromise" condemns the emperor's entourage. Franz Joseph retreated. On October 30, 1871, he transferred the solution of this issue to the lower house, where opponents of Czech autonomy prevailed. The question is buried, the resignation of Hohenwart. This intensified the activity of the young Chechens, who in 1871 created their own "National Liberal Party" (K. Sladkovsky, Grehr). If the elders boycotted the elections to the Reichstag, then the young ones abandon this policy.

In 1879, they entered into a coalition in parliament with the Austrian and Polish conservative deputies ("Iron Ring"), thus winning a parliamentary majority. Political support was provided to the Austrian Prime Minister E. Taaffe (1879-1893). "Era Taaffe" - the time of the greatest political stability, economic growth and cultural prosperity. Taaffe played on national contradictions. "Different peoples must be kept in a state of constant slight discontent."

But as soon as he came up with a project to democratize the electoral system, the bloc that supported him collapsed. Aristocrats of all nationalities and liberal German nationalists were not ready to admit to parliament representatives of "unprivileged peoples", primarily Slavs, as well as social democrats. In 1893 anti-German and anti-Habsburg demonstrations swept through the Slavic cities. Reason for Taaffe's resignation. All subsequent governments have to solve a very complex national problem.

On the one hand, the reform of the electoral system was inevitable, on the other, the government could not lose the support of the Austrian Germans. The Germans (35% of the population) provided 63% of the tax collection. The Badoni government (1895-1897) fell due to an attempt to introduce bilingualism in the Czech Republic. Czech cities are again swept by a wave of unrest. German politicians (von Monsen) called on the Austrian Germans not to surrender to the Slavs. Russia tacitly supported the struggle of the Slavs, relying on the Young Chechens. In the western part of the monarchy (Tsisleitania), universal suffrage was introduced in 1907, opening the way to parliament for both the Slavs and the Social Democrats. The struggle flares up with renewed vigor.

In addition to the Czech issue, there were other acute national problems in Austria-Hungary. In the South Slavic lands - Pan-Slavism, in Galicia - discord between Polish landowners and Ukrainian peasants, South Tyrol and Istria (700 thousand Italians) were swept by the movement for annexation to Italy (irredentism).

National problems constantly raised new questions for the government. Franz Joseph I was a master of the political compromise "Josephinism", but he struggled all the time with consequences, not causes.

2.From the beginning of the 70s. XIX century. there were 3 main problems in the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary:

1. Close alliance with Germany.

2. Careful advance to the Balkans.

3. Striving to avoid another big war.

An alliance with Germany was necessary for Vienna in order to ensure advancement in the Balkans and neutralize Russia's influence there. Prussia needed Austrian support to oppose France. It remains to oppose something to the influence of Great Britain. Bismarck invites Franz Joseph and Alexander II to conclude the "Union of Three Emperors" (1873). however, the rivalry between Petersburg and Vienna in the Balkans significantly weakened this alliance. Austria-Hungary lost the ability to influence the affairs of Germany and Italy. She did not have colonies and did not seek to acquire them. It could only strengthen its position in the Balkans. She is frightened by the possibility of Russia using Pan-Slavism to strike at the Ottoman Empire. Vienna takes a course to support the Turks.

In 1875, the situation in the Balkans deteriorated sharply. The uprising of the Slavs in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks brutally suppressed the uprisings. In Russia, the public demands from the tsar to provide decisive support to the Slavic brothers. Franz Joseph I and his foreign minister, Count Gyula Androssy, hesitated: they did not want to push Turkey away. Bismarck advised to negotiate with Russia on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans. In January-March 1877, Austro-Russian diplomatic agreements were signed (Vienna received freedom of action in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for benevolent neutrality during the Russian-Turkish war).

Turkey has lost almost all of its territories in the Balkan Peninsula. In Austria, this aroused shock and suspicion of Russia's intensification. But having barely won a victory in Turkey, the victors quarreled over the issue of Macedonia. In June 1913, the Second Balkan War begins against the aggression of Bulgaria by Serbia, Greece and Romania in alliance with Turkey. Bulgaria was defeated, losing most of the conquered territory, and Turkey was able to retain a small part of its European possessions, centered in Adrianople (Edirne).

Austria-Hungary decided to use the results of the Second Balkan War to weaken Serbia. Vienna supported the idea of creating an independent Albania, hoping that this state would be under the Austrian protectorate. Russia, backing Serbia, began to concentrate troops on the Austrian border. Austria does the same. It was about the prestige of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, without which it was impossible to solve the internal national question, but the position of Great Britain and Germany temporarily postpones the big war. For a while, the interests of these states intersect.

Both in that and in the other country believed that it was foolish to start a war because of the minor conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Britain did not want to lose the profitable trade in the Mediterranean and feared for the path of communication with the eastern colonies. Germany is actively developing the young Balkan states. Under the joint pressure of the great powers, Serbia agrees to create a formally independent Albania. The crisis of 1912 was resolved. But in Vienna the feeling of defeat reigns.

Causes:

Serbia did not lose its position in the Balkans and retained its claims to the unification of the Balkan Slavs. Austro-Serbian relations were hopelessly ruined.

The clash between Romania and Bulgaria destroyed a fragile system of relations beneficial to Austria.

More and more contradictions arose between Austria-Hungary and Italy, threatening the collapse of the Triple Alliance.

The abundance of insoluble problems makes Austria-Hungary hope only for a big war. The aged Emperor Franz Joseph I did not want war, but was unable to contain ethnic strife (the Austrian Germans, the Hungarian elite, and the Slavs were unhappy). Many of the Austrian politicians saw a way out of the situation in the transfer of the throne to the heir to Archduceg Franz Ferdinand (since 1913 he was appointed to the most important military post of inspector general of the armed forces). He spoke in favor of improving relations with Russia and at the same time was strongly anti-Hungarian.

In June 1914, he went on maneuvers to Bosnia. After finishing the maneuvers, he visited the Bosnian capital Sarajevo. Here he and his wife Countess Sophia von Hohenberg were killed on June 28 by the Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip from the Black Hand organization. This pushes Vienna to present an ultimatum to Serbia, which becomes the formal reason for the outbreak of the First World War. Participation in the war exacerbated the internal problems of the Empire to the limit and led to its collapse in 1918.

The economy of Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th centuries was characterized by weak rates of industrial development, backward agriculture, uneven economic development in individual regions, and an orientation towards self-sufficiency.

Austria-Hungary was a moderately developed agro-industrial country The vast majority of the population was employed in agriculture and forestry (more than 11 million people) The land belonged to large landowners, who averaged more than 10 thousand hectares each.

In Austria-Hungary, the same economic processes took place as in other developed capitalist countries - the concentration of production and capital, an increase in investment.In some gross indicators and (steelmaking), the empire was ahead of England and France in the second half of the XIX century ?? Were industrially developed Austria and the Czechs The six largest monopolies controlled the production of almost the entire ore hall and more than 90% of steel production. The metallurgical concern \ "Skoda \" in the Czech Republic was one of the largest enterprises of the European military industry. the empire was its technological backwardness, poor provision with the latest technology and the lack of the latest industries. German and French capital was actively invested in the basic industries - oil production, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, mechanical engineering.

Industry and agriculture worked for the benefit of their own market In the Danube monarchy, products were mainly produced of their own production.Trade between the internal imperial territories semi-ima had a significant impetus after the liquidation of customs duties in the second half of the 19th century, and manufacturers from different parts of Austria-Hungary were developing promising markets in Cisleitania and Transleutania, Galicia Imports, as well as exports of goods, were insignificant and barely reached 5 5%.

There were up to a million officials in the country - twice as many as workers Yes, and for every ten peasants there was one official Bureaucracy reached unprecedented proportions, which in turn led to sharp social contrasts The overall standard of living was very low For example, in 1906 in Vienna 6% of the population spent the night in hostels. A different standard of living was in the capital and in the provincial cities of the faith in Vienna, the worker received an average of 4 guilders a day, then in Lviv - about 2 In addition, prices for consumer goods in the capital were lower than those of the provinces. During the last third of the XIX century. the economy of Austria-Hungary has lost its former, predominantly agrarian character. During this period, large enterprises arose, which employed thousands of workers: Vitkovice metallurgical plants and enterprises of the Skoda company in the Czech Republic, which became the main supplier of weapons not only to Austria-Hungary, but also to a number of neighboring states; large mining and iron-making enterprises in Styria, etc. By 1900, oil production in Austria-Hungary amounted to 347 thousand tons (fourth place in the world). The railway network grew rapidly. However, with a fairly significant rate of development of many industries, the absolute size of production was still very small. At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Austria-Hungary, for example, ranked seventh in the world in the production of pig iron, behind the United States of America, Germany, England, Russia, France and Belgium.

Austria-Hungary was in one of the last places in Europe for the use of machines in agriculture, for the use of fertilizers. The peasantry suffered from land shortages. At the same time, colossal tracts of land belonged to a small noble elite. Four thousand Hungarian magnates each had over 1000 hectares.

In Bohemia, small peasant farms (over 80% of the total number of households) cultivated only 12.5% of the land, while a third of the land was concentrated in the hands of several hundred large landowners (mostly Austrian). Ukrainian peasants in Galicia experienced severe land hunger. In the Polish lands of Cieszyn Silesia, the overwhelming majority of peasants also belonged to the category of landless and landless.

The need of the working peasantry has become especially acute in connection with the world agrarian crisis. In 1888 alone, in Cisleitania (the Austrian part of the Habsburg monarchy), the property of about 12 thousand peasants was sold under the hammer. For 10 years - from 1892 to 1901 - about 750 thousand people left Austria-Hungary; emigrants most often were representatives of the Slavic peoples - the most oppressed in Austria-Hungary.

In 1881-1890. an average of 7 thousand people emigrated from western Galicia a year, and in the 90s - more than 17 thousand. The relative cheapness of labor caused an influx of foreign capital to Austria-Hungary, mainly German and French. German capitalists were able to seize important positions in mechanical engineering, in the steel and chemical industries, and later in the electrical industry. The Skoda factories were in close connection with the Krupp factories. French capital was directed to the construction of railways, the coal industry, the metallurgical enterprises of Styria, etc. Dependence on foreign capital was combined with the persistent attempts of the Austrian bourgeoisie to pursue their own expansionist policy, the objects of which were primarily the countries of the Balkan Peninsula.

In the 70s, the first large industrial associations were formed, prototypes of future monopolies. Large banks played an important role in accelerating the process of capital concentration. A good example of this was the participation of the Bank "Credit Institution" and the "Czech Accounting Bank" in the transformation of the Škoda factories into a joint-stock company (1899).

In metallurgy, the concentration of production proceeded at an especially rapid pace. The largest monopoly company was the mining and metallurgical company Alpine-Montan, founded in 1881, which in fact became the owner of the heavy industry of the Alpine regions of Austria.

The first cartel to unite both Austrian and Hungarian ironworks arose in the 1970s; it disintegrated several times due to sharp contradictions between its participants and was finally recreated already at the beginning of the 20th century. on new, more favorable terms for the Hungarian monopolists.

Industry monopolization took place only in the most industrial regions of the country. Many areas of Austria-Hungary were still at a very, low level of economic development. The Austrian bourgeoisie strove to turn all non-Austrian lands, including Hungary, into agrarian and raw materials appendages of their industry, to create "internal colonies" for the latter. In some cases it was successful. For example, the industrial development of Galicia was artificially inhibited; in the oil fields that existed here, extremely backward and predatory methods were used. For the most part, these aspirations of the capitalists of the dominant nation turned out to be unrealizable. Thus, the Czech regions turned into an area of the greatest development of heavy industry. By the end of the XIX century. the share of the Czech Republic and Moravia accounted for 90% of the production of coal and 82% of brown coal, over 90% of steel smelting in Cisleitania.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, Austria-Hungary was one of the most backward countries in Europe. The preserved remnants of feudalism in the country led to a slowdown in the rate of industrial progress in relation to the advanced countries of Europe.

In the 90s, the population of the city was only one third of the total population of Austria-Hungary. Even in Austria, the most developed part of the empire, the majority of the population was rural. And Hungary continued to be more of an agrarian, semi-feudal country.

The Austro-Hungarian agreement, concluded in 1867, became a certain impetus for the economic development of Hungary. On the basis of the coal base of Hungary, she began to develop the metallurgical industry. But the main industrial sector in Hungary was still food. In 1898, the share of Hungary in the empire in flour milling, winemaking, sugar and other food products was 47.3%. In the industrial regions of the country - Lower Austria and the Czech Republic, the process of concentration of production and the formation of monopolies proceeded rapidly.

By the beginning of the 20th century, loan capital was collected mainly in several large banks in Vienna (National, Creditansh-talt, Bodencreditanstalt and in the association of Vienna banks). The effect of the financial oligarchy in the life of the country has intensified.

Another characteristic feature of the empire's progress is its growing dependence on foreign capital. Banks in France, Belgium, Germany have filled Austria with their capital by investing in industry. German capital gained the upper hand.

Such industries of Austria-Hungary as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, etc., were financially supported by German firms. The position of German capital in textile and machine-building enterprises was very high. German capital also burst into agriculture. 200,000 hectares of land in Austria belonged to German landowners