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Fundamental principles of management. Basic principles of management Application in practice of the basic principles of management

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………

1. BASIC CONCEPTS………………………………………………………
1.1 Fundamental principles of management………………………………….
1.2 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………………
2. CARRYING OUT THE EXPERIMENT……………………………………….
2.1 Conducting an experiment on the main channel…………………………..
2.2 Conducting an experiment on the internal channel ……………………….
2.3 Conducting an experiment on the perturbation channel………………………...
2.4. Identification of channels and the simoy method and verification of approximation
2.4.1 Main channel ………………………………………………………………
2.4..2 Approximate acceleration curve……………………………………
2.4.3 Internal channel ……………………………………………………………
2.4..4 Disturbance channel…………………………………………………….
3. CALCULATION OF THE OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE REGULATOR OF A SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEM…………………………………………...
3.1 Calculation of settings for the internal channel……………………………………...
3.2 Selection and calculation of the transfer function of the equivalent object………..
3.3 Calculation of the optimal settings of the external regulator……………………...
3.4 Calculation of the compensating device………………………………………
3.5 Combined feed control system …………………………………………………
3.6 Calculation of the optimal settings for the controller of a single-loop system of a real object……………………………………………………………….
3.7 Calculation of the optimal settings of the cascade system………………………..
3.8 Selection and calculation of the transfer function of the equivalent object………..
3.9 Combined control system with supply of additional action to the input of the regulator……………………………………….…….
3.10 Analysis of transient processes……………………………………………….
3.10.1 Analysis of transient processes of the model…………………………………
3.10.2 Analysis of transient processes of a real object……………………..
4. ECONOMIC PART…………………………………………………
4.1. Calculation of economic efficiency…………………………………….
4.2. Calculation of labor costs for debugging a program………………………………………...…
4.3. Calculation of the average salary of a programmer……………………………………
4.4 Calculation of the total cost of operating a computer……………………………...
5. SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT…………………………
5.1 Equipment safety and production processes……………...

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………
LIST OF USED LITERATURE…………………………

INTRODUCTION

In his message of 2011, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev "Let's build the future together" today, in the context of the deteriorating global situation, we must activate domestic investment resources with the growing role of state holdings, development institutions, and socially entrepreneurial corporations.

To implement automatic control of the technical process, a system is created that consists of a controlled object and a control device associated with it. Like any technical structure, the system must have structural rigidity and dynamic strength. These purely mechanical terms are somewhat conventional in this case. They mean that the system must perform the functions assigned to it with the required accuracy, despite the inertial properties and the inevitable interference.

Apparently, the creators of high-precision mechanisms, primarily watches, were the first to face the need to build regulators. Even very small, but continuously acting, hindrances, accumulating, eventually led to deviations from the normal course, which were unacceptable in terms of accuracy. It was not always possible to counteract them by purely constructive means, for example, by improving the accuracy and cleanliness of the processing of parts, increasing their mass or increasing useful forces, it was not always possible, and regulators began to be introduced into the clock to increase accuracy. At the turn of our era, the Arabs supplied a water clock with a float level regulator. In 1675 H. Huygens built a pendulum rate regulator into the clock.

Another reason that prompted the construction of regulators was the need to control processes that were subject to such strong interference that not only accuracy was lost, but often the operability of the system in general. The forerunners of regulators for such conditions can be considered centrifugal pendulum speed equalizers used in the Middle Ages for water flour mills.

In the main directions of economic and social development, the task is to develop the production of electronic control and telemechanics devices, actuators, instruments and sensors for integrated automation systems for complex technological processes, units, machines and equipment.

The significance of the theory of automatic control has now grown into the framework of directly technical systems. Dynamically controlled processes take place in living organisms, in economic and organizational man-machine systems. The laws of dynamics in them are not the main and defining principles of control, as is typical for technical systems, but nevertheless their influence is often significant and failure to take them into account leads to large losses. In automated control systems (ACS) for technological processes, the role of dynamics is indisputable, but it becomes more and more obvious in other areas of ACS as they expand not only informational, but also control functions.

Technical cybernetics is called upon to solve the problems of theoretical analysis and development of methods for the technical design of the element base of control systems. The allocation of this section of technical cybernetics into an independent scientific discipline "Elements of automatic control and monitoring systems" was the result of the accumulation of a large amount of material devoted to the study of various automation devices and its systematization.

The experience gained in the creation of automated and automatic control systems shows that the control of various processes is based on a number of rules and laws, some of which are common to technical devices, living organisms and social phenomena. The study of the processes of control, receipt, transformation of information in technical, living and social systems is the subject of cybernetics, an important section of which is technical cybernetics, including the analysis of information processes for managing technical objects, the synthesis of control algorithms and the creation of control systems that implement these algorithms.

1. BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Fundamental principles of management

Purposeful processes performed by a person to meet various needs is an organized and ordered set of actions - operations that are divided into two main types: work operations and management operations. Work operations include actions that are directly necessary to carry out the process in accordance with the natural laws that determine the course of this process, for example, removing chips in the process of cutting a product on a machine tool, moving a crew, rotating an engine shaft, etc. To facilitate and improve work operations, various technical devices are used that partially or completely replace a person in this operation. The replacement of human labor in work operations is called mechanization. The purpose of mechanization is to free a person in difficult operations that require large expenditures of physical energy (earthworks, lifting loads), in harmful operations (chemical, radioactive processes), in “routine” (monotonous, tiring for the nervous system) operations (screwing screws of the same type during assembly, filling out standard documents, performing standard calculations, etc.).

For the correct and high-quality performance of work operations, accompanying actions of a different kind are necessary - control operations, through which the start, sequence and termination of work operations are provided at the right moments, the resources necessary for their implementation are allocated, the necessary parameters are given to the process itself - direction, speed, acceleration work tool or crew; temperature, concentration, chemical process, etc. The set of control operations forms the control process.

Control operations can also be partially or completely performed by technical devices. The replacement of human labor in control operations is called automation, and the technical devices that perform control operations are called automatic devices. The set of technical devices (machines, tools, mechanization) that perform this process, from the point of view of management, is the object of management. The set of controls and the object forms control systems. A system in which all work and control operations are performed by automatic devices without human intervention is called an automatic system. A system in which only part of the control operations is automated, and the other part (usually the most critical) is performed by people, is called an automated (or semi-automatic) system.

The range of objects and management operations is very wide. It covers technological processes and units, groups of units, workshops, enterprises, human teams, organizations, etc.

Control objects and types of influence on them.

The objects in which the controlled process takes place will be called control objects. These are various technical devices and complexes, technological or production processes. The state of an object can be characterized by one or more physical quantities, called controlled or regulated variables. For a technical device, for example, an electrical generator, the regulated variable may be the voltage at its output terminals; for a production site or workshop - the volume of industrial products produced by it.

As a rule, two types of actions are applied to the control object: control - r(t) and disturbing f(t); the state of the object is characterized by the variable x(t):

R(t) an object x(t)

management

The change in the controlled value x(t) is determined both by the control action r(t) and by the disturbing or interference f(t). Let's define these influences.

Disturbing is such an action that violates the required functional relationship between the controlled or controlled variables and the control action. If the perturbation characterizes the action of the external environment on the object, then it is called external. If this impact occurs inside the object due to the flow of undesirable, but inevitable processes during its normal functioning, then such disturbances are called internal.

The actions applied to the control object in order to change the applied value in accordance with the required law, as well as to compensate for the influence of disturbances on the nature of the change in the controlled value, are called control.

The main goal of automatic control of any object or process is to continuously maintain, with a given accuracy, the required functional relationship between controlled variables characterizing the state of the object and control actions in the conditions of interaction of the object with the external environment, i.e. in the presence of both internal and external disturbing influences. The mathematical expression of this functional dependence is called the control algorithm.

The concept of a system element

Any control object is associated with one or more regulators that form control actions applied to the regulatory body. The control object together with the control device, or regulator, form a control or regulation system. At the same time, if a person does not participate in the control process, then such a system is called an automatic control system.

The system controller is a complex of devices interconnected in a certain sequence and carrying out the implementation of the simplest operations on signals. In this regard, it is possible to decompose (decompose) the controller into separate functional elements - the simplest structurally integral cells that perform one specific operation with a signal.

Such operations should include:

1) conversion of the controlled value into a signal;

2) transformation: a) a signal of one type of energy into a signal of another type of energy; b) a continuous signal into a discrete one and vice versa; c) signal in terms of energy; d) types of functional connection between output and input signals;

3) signal storage;

4) formation of program signals;

5) comparison of control and program signals and formation of a mismatch signal;

6) execution of logical operations;

7) signal distribution over various transmission channels;

8) the use of signals to influence the control object.

The listed operations with signals performed by elements of automatic control systems are used further as the basis for systematizing the entire variety of automation elements used in systems that are different in nature, purpose and principle of operation, i.e. generated by a variety of automatic control and monitoring systems.

In order to carry out automatic control or build a control system, two types of knowledge are needed: firstly, specific knowledge of a given process, its technology, and, secondly, knowledge of the principles and methods of control common to a wide variety of objects and processes. Specific specialized knowledge makes it possible to establish what and, most importantly, how to change in the system in order to obtain the desired result.

When automating the control of technical processes, there is a need for various groups of control operations. One of these groups includes the operation of starting (switching on), terminating (switching off) a given operation, and switching from one operation to another (switching).

For the correct and high-quality conduct of the process, some of its coordinates - controlled ones - must be maintained within certain boundaries or change according to a certain law.

Another group of control operations is related to the control of coordinates in order to establish acceptable boundaries. This group of operations consists in measuring coordinate values and presenting the measurement results in a form convenient for a human operator.

The third group of control operations - operations to maintain a given law of coordinate change - is studied in the theory of automatic control.

Any object that has mass is dynamic, since under the action of external forces and moments (of finite magnitude) the corresponding reaction of its position (or state) occurs on the part of the object and cannot be changed instantly. Variables x, u and f (where x is the set of controlled process coordinates, u are the actions or controls applied to the object, and f are disturbances acting on the input of the object) in dynamic objects are usually interconnected by differential, integral or difference equations containing in time t as an independent variable.

Changes in coordinates in a normal, desired process are determined by a set of rules, prescriptions or mathematical dependencies, called the system functioning algorithm. The functioning algorithm shows how the value x(t) should change according to the requirements of technology, economics, or other considerations. In the theory of automatic control, the functioning algorithms are considered given.

Dynamic properties and the form of static characteristics introduce distortions: the actual process will differ from the desired one (which, for example, would take place in an inertialess linear object under the same influences). Therefore, the required control change law u , or the control algorithm, will not be similar to the operation algorithm; it will depend on the functioning algorithm, dynamic properties and characteristics of the object. The control algorithm shows how the control u should change in order to provide the given operation algorithm. The functioning algorithm in the automatic system is implemented with the help of control devices.

The control algorithms used in technology are based on some general fundamental control principles that determine how the control algorithm is linked to the specified and actual operation, or to the reasons that caused deviations. Three fundamental principles are used: open-loop control, feedback and compensation.

Open loop principle

The essence of the principle is that the control algorithm is built only on the basis of a given functioning algorithm and is not controlled by the actual value of the controlled variable.

Deviation control principle

(feedback principle).

This principle is one of the earliest and most widespread principles of management. In accordance with it, the impact on the regulatory body of the object is generated as a function of the deviation of the controlled variable from the prescribed value.

Feedback can be found in many processes in nature. Examples are the vestibular apparatus, which detects deviations of the body from the vertical and maintains balance, systems for regulating body temperature, breathing rhythm, etc. In public institutions, feedback in management is established by monitoring execution. The feedback principle is a very universal fundamental control principle that operates in technology, nature and society.

Disturbance control principle(principle of compensation).

Since the deviation of the controlled variable depends not only on the control, but also on the disturbing influence, then in principle it is possible to formulate the control law so that there is no deviation in the steady state.

The principle of regulating a steam engine according to the moment of resistance on its shaft was proposed in 1930 by the French engineer I. Poncelet, but this proposal could not be put into practice, since the dynamic properties of the steam engine (the presence of astatism) did not allow direct use of the compensation principle. But in a number of other technical devices, the principle of compensation has been used for a long time. It is noteworthy that its use in statics was not in doubt, while G.V. Shchipanov's attempt in 1940 to propose the principle of perturbation invariance to eliminate deviations in dynamics caused a sharp discussion and accusations of the impracticability of the proposal. V.S. Kulebakin in 1948 and B.N. Petrov in 1955 showed how systems should be built so that the principle of invariance could be implemented in them. In 1966, the invariance principle proposed by G.V. Shchipanov was registered as a discovery with priority - April 1939. Thus, the mistake of his opponents was corrected, which consisted in denying the realizability of the invariance principle in general.

Disturbance control systems, in comparison with deviation-based systems, are usually characterized by greater stability and speed. Their disadvantages include the difficulty of measuring the load in most systems, incomplete consideration of disturbances (only those disturbances that are measured are compensated). So, when compounding an electric machine, voltage fluctuations in the networks supplying the driving motor and excitation windings, winding resistance fluctuations due to temperature changes, etc. are not compensated. large power plants (compounding with correction). Combined regulators combine the advantages of the two principles, but, of course, their design is more complicated, and the cost is higher.

1.2 Statement of the problem.

In this thesis, an ACS of a complex structure is considered, which includes two circuits, one circuit for deviation, the second circuit for disturbance.

To study the operation of a complex automatic control system as a whole and its individual circuits. Calculate the optimal tuning parameters of the ACS regulators and implement the results obtained on a real object - Remikont-120. Combined control system 1 – main channel (Wob(S));

To remove the acceleration curve, we apply a perturbing action with an amplitude of 10% to the algoblock and remove the acceleration curve from this algoblock. We enter the curve in the VIT1 file. After interpolation by 5 points and normalization, we obtain the acceleration curve presented in the table / cm. tab. 2.1

2.2 Conducting an experiment on the internal channel

To record the acceleration curve along the internal channel, we carry out the same actions as when recording the first curve. The resulting acceleration curve is entered in the VIT2 file. After processing the curve, the results are entered in the table / see. tab. 2.2/table

2.3 Conducting an experiment on the perturbation channel

To record the acceleration curve along the perturbation channel, we carry out the same actions as when removing the first curve. The resulting acceleration curve is entered in the VIT2 file. After processing the curve, the results are entered in the table / see. tab. 2.3/ table 2.3 Normalized acceleration curve

2.4. Identification of channels and the Simoyu method and verification of approximation.

2.4.1 Main channel

In the ASR program, using the normalized acceleration curve (excluding delay), we obtain the values of the areas:

Transfer function of the object: W(s) rev =1/14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1 As a result, we get: the roots of the characteristic equation: 14.583*S 2 +6.663*S+1=0

S 1 \u003d -0.228 + j0.128

S 2 \u003d -0.228-j0.128

Y(t)=1+2.046*cos(4.202-0.128*t)*e -0.228* t

We substitute the value of t into this equation, we get a graph of the transient process for the main channel (approximated acceleration curve).

2.4..2 Approximate acceleration curve

Comparison of the normalized acceleration curve and the obtained transient process for the main channel will be the verification of the approximation of the control object. Calculation formula: (h(t)-y(t))*100/h(y) The maximum deviation is (0.0533-0.0394)*100/0.0533=26%

The complete transfer function (including the pure delay link) is: W(s) rev =1*e -6* s /14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1

2.4.3 Inner channel

F1=8.508;
F2=19.5765;
F3=0.4436.
Thus, the transfer function of the object:

Let us check the approximation, i.e. we find the static error of the normalized acceleration curve from the acceleration curve obtained from the transient process. We use the Carlon-Heaviside transformations and the expansion theorem.

As a result, we get: W(s)ob1=1/19.576*s 2 +8.508*s+1 roots of the characteristic equation:19.576*S 2 +8.508*S+1=0

S 1 \u003d -0.21731 + j0.06213

S 2 \u003d -0.21731-j0.06213

The real part of the roots is negative, therefore, we can conclude that the object is stable.

The transient process of the object has the form:

y(t)=1+3.638*cos(4.434-0.062*t)*e- 0.217* t
We substitute the value of t into this equation, we get a graph of the transient process for the main channel (approximated acceleration curve) Table.

Approximate acceleration curve

When comparing the acceleration curves, we get the maximum deviation: (0.0345-0.0321)*100/0.0345=7%

2.4..4 Disturbance channel.

In the ASR program, using the normalized acceleration curve, we obtain the values of the areas
F1=5.8678;
F2=8.1402
F3=-4.8742.
We compose a system of equations:

a2=8.14+b1*5.688

0=-4.874+b1*8.14

Where b1=0.599 , a1=6.467 , a2=11.655

Thus, the transfer function of the object: W (s) sov \u003d 0.599 * s / 11.655 * s 2 +6.467 * s + 1

As a result, we get: the roots of the characteristic equation: 11.655*S 2 +6.467*S+1=0

S 1 \u003d -0.27743 + j0.09397

S 2 \u003d -0.27743-j0.09397

The real part of the roots is negative, therefore, we can conclude that the object is stable.

The transient process of the object has the form:

y(t)=1+2.605*cos(4.318-0.094*t)*e -0.277* t

We substitute the value of t into this equation, we get a graph of the transient process for the main channel (approximated acceleration curve)

tab. 4.4 - Approximate acceleration curve

When comparing overclocking curves, we get the maximum deviation: (0.0966-0.0746)*100/0.0966=22.5%

3. CALCULATION OF THE OPTIMUM SETTINGS OF THE REGULATOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEM

An important element of the synthesis of the ACP of the technological process is the calculation of a single-loop control system. In this case, it is required to select a structure and find the numerical values of the controller parameters. ASR is formed by combining the object of regulation and the regulator, and is a single dynamic system. Calculation of ACP settings by the Rotach method. The transfer function of the object over the main channel has the form:

W(s) vol \u003d 1 * e -6 * s / 14.583 * s 2 +6.663 * s + 1

w cr =0.14544.

Structural diagram of a single-loop system by control action

K/S=Kp/T and =0.0958

W(s)=1/(19.576*s 2 +8.508*s+1)

K/S=Kp/T and =0.5593

transition process

Overshoot - 29%

Decay time - 9s

Attenuation degree - 0.86

3.2 Selection and calculation of the transfer function of the equivalent plant

Comparing the attenuation time of the transients of the internal and main circuits, we determine that Weq corresponds to the form: W eq (s) \u003d W about (s) / W about 1 (s),

where W about (s) \u003d 1 * e -6 * s / (14.583 * s 2 +6.663 * s + 1),

W ob1 (s) \u003d 1 / (19.576 * s 2 + 8.508 * s + 1).

W eq (s)=(19.576*s 2 +8.508*s+1)*e- 6* s /(14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1)

3.3 Calculation of optimal external controller settings

In the Linreg program, we introduce the transfer function of the equivalent object and obtain the values of the optimal settings for the controller P2.

W cr =0.30928

Structural diagram of a cascade system by control action

W(s)=1/(14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1)

2. W(s)=1/(19.576*s 2 +8.508*s+1)

4. K/S=Kp/T and =0.5593

5. K=Kp=4.06522

6. K/S=Kp/T and =0.13754

7. K=Kp=0.19898

3.K/S=Kp/T and =0.0958

4.W(s)=1/(14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1)

transition process

Overshoot - 7%

Decay time - 35s

Attenuation degree - 0.86

3.5 Combined feed control system

Additional influence on the input of the regulator

Let's define the transfer function of the filter according to the formula:

W f (s) \u003d W s (s) / (W about (s) * W p (s)), where W s (s) is the transfer function of the channel by perturbation, W about (s) is the transfer function of the object, W p (s) - transfer function of the controller,

A f (w) \u003d A ov (w) / (A about (w) * A p (w)) \u003d 0.072 / (0.834 * 0.326) \u003d 0.265

F f (w) \u003d F ov (w) - (F about (w) + F p (w)) \u003d 141- (-130 + (-52)) \u003d 323 \u003d -37

T in \u003d (1 / w) * sqrt (OS / DS) \u003d 8.876

1.W(s)=0.599*s/(11.655*s 2 +6.467*s+1)

3.K=8.786,T=8.786

5.K/S=Kp/Ti=0.0958

8.W(s)=1/(14.583*s 2 +6.663*s+1)

transition process

Overshoot - 8%

Decay time - 60s

Attenuation degree -0.56

3.6 Calculation of the optimal settings for the controller of a single-loop system of a real object

Calculation of ACP settings by the Rotach method. The transfer function of the object over the main channel has the form:

W(s) vol \u003d 1 * e -6 * s / 13.824 * s 3 +17.28 * s 2 + 7.2 * s + 1

In the Linreg program, we calculate the optimal settings for the PI controller:

We model in the SIAM package the transient processes of a single-loop system in terms of the control and perturbing effects.

Structural diagram of a single-loop system according to the control action.

Structural diagram of the internal channel by control action

W(s)=1/(23.04*s 2 +9.6*s+1)

K/S=Kp/T and =0.5582

impact

W(s)=1/(23.04*s 2 +9.6*s+1)

K/S=Kp/T and =0.5582

transition process

Overshoot - 20%

Decay time - 20s

Attenuation degree - 0.85

3.8 Selection and calculation of the transfer function of the equivalent object

The setting factors for the P1 controller are calculated as the settings for the inner loop. The tuning coefficients for the P2 controller are calculated from the transfer function of the equivalent plant.

Comparing the attenuation time of the transients of the internal and main circuits, we determine that Weq corresponds to the form: W eq (s) \u003d W about (s) / W about 1 (s),

where W about (s)=1*e -6*s /(13.824*s 3 *17.28*s 2 +7.2*s+1),

(s)=1/(23.04*s 2 +9.6*s+1).

After the calculations, we get:

W eq (s)=(23.04*s 2 +9.6*s+1)*e- 6* s /(13.824*s 3 *17.28*s 2 +7.2*s+1)

Calculation of the optimal settings of the external controller. In the Linreg program, we introduce the transfer function of the equivalent object and obtain the values of the optimal settings of the controller Р2.

In the Siam package, we will simulate transient processes in terms of the control and perturbing effects.

transition process

Overshoot - 57%

Decay time - 150s

Attenuation degree - 0.91

Structural diagram of a cascade system according to

1. W(s)=1/(13.824*s 3 *17.28*s 2 +7.2*s+1)

2. W(s)=1/(23.04*s 2 +9.6*s+1)

4. K/S=Kp/T and =0.5582

6. K/S=Kp/T and =0.107

Structural diagram of a combined system without a compensator

1.W(s)=1/(9*s 2 +6*s+1)

3.K/S=Kp/T and =0.0916

4.W(s)=1/(13.824*s 3 *17.28*s 2 +7.2*s+1)

transition process

Overshoot - 87%

Decay time - 65s

Attenuation degree -0.95

3.9 Combined control system with supply of additional action to the input of the regulator

Let us determine the transfer function of the filter according to the formula: Wf(s)=Wov(s)/(Wob(s)*Wp(s)), where W ov (s) is the transfer function of the channel by perturbation, W about (s) is the transfer function object, W p (s) - transfer function of the controller,

Find the values of the transfer function of the filter for zero frequency: v (0) + F p (0)) \u003d 90

Find the values of the filter transfer function for the resonant frequency (w=0.14544):

A f (w) \u003d A ov (w) / (A about (w) * A p (w)) \u003d 0.769 / (0.816 * 0.851) \u003d 1.13

F f (w) \u003d F ov (w) - (F about (w) + F p (w)) \u003d -46- (-53 + (-76)) \u003d 83

As a perturbation compensator, we use a real differential link: W k (s)=K in *T in (s)/(T in (s)+1)

The compensator coordinates are determined geometrically.

T in \u003d (1 / w) * sqrt (OS / DS) \u003d 1.018

Let's model a scheme of a combined system with a compensator in the SIAM package.

Structural diagram of a combined system with a compensator

1.W(s)=1/(9*s 2 +6*s+1)

3.K=1.018,T=1.018

5.K/S=Kp/Ti=0.0916

8.W(s)=1/(13.824*s 3 *17.28*s 2 +7.2*s+1)

transition process

Overshoot - 56%

Decay time - 70s

Attenuation degree -0.93

3.10 Transient analysis

3.10.1 Model transient analysis

In order to make an analysis, a summary table of transients is compiled

According to the data obtained as a result of the calculations, it can be concluded that a cascade ACP without a disturbance compensator copes better with regulation.

3.10.2 Analysis of transient processes of a real object

According to the data obtained as a result of the calculations, it can be concluded that a cascade ACP with a disturbance compensator copes better with regulation.

11. List of files

VIT1 - main channel acceleration curve

VIT2 - internal channel acceleration curve

VIT3 - acceleration curve per disturbance channel

VIT_1 - approximated acceleration curve for the main channel

VIT_2 - approximated acceleration curve for the internal channel

VIT_3 - approximated acceleration curve along the perturbation channel

S_ODN_U - block diagram of a single-loop control system

S_ODN_V - block diagram of a single-loop system by perturbation

S_VN_U - block diagram of the internal control channel

S_VN_V - block diagram of the internal channel by disturbance

S_KAS_U - block diagram of the cascade control system

S_KAS_V - block diagram of a cascade system by disturbance

S_KOM_NO - block diagram of the combined control system

S_KOM_R - block diagram of the combined system by perturbation

4. ECONOMIC PART

4.1. Calculation of economic efficiency

The cost of creating a software product consists of the cost of remuneration of the program developer and the cost of paying for machine time when debugging the program:

Z spp \u003d Z zp spp + Z mv spp + Z total,

where Z cpp - the cost of creating a software product;

Z zp cpp - the cost of remuneration for the developer of the program;

Z mv cpp - the cost of paying for machine time;

· Program developer's labor costs

The labor costs of a software developer are determined by multiplying the labor intensity of creating a software product by the average hourly wage of a programmer (taking into account the coefficient of contributions to social needs):

Z sn spp \u003d t * T hour .

Calculation of the complexity of creating a software product

The complexity of developing a software product can be defined as follows:

t = t O + t d + t from

where t o - labor costs for preparing a description of the problem;

t d - labor costs for the preparation of task documentation;

t from - labor costs for debugging a program on a computer with complex debugging of a task.

The cost components, in turn, can be calculated through the conditional number of operators Q. In our case, the number of operators in the debugged program is Q = 585.

It is not possible to estimate the labor costs for preparing a task description, because this is due to the creative nature of the work, instead, we estimate the labor costs for studying the description of the problem, taking into account the specification of the description and the qualifications of the programmer, we determine:

t And = Q * B /(75...85 * K ),

where B is the coefficient of increase in labor costs due to

insufficient description of the task, clarifications and

some unfinished, B=1,2...5;

K - developer qualification factor, for

working up to 2 years K=0.8;

Due to the fact that when studying the description of this problem, many clarifications and improvements were required in the description of the coefficient B, we take equal to 4

Thus, we get

t and \u003d 585 * 4 / (75 * 0.8) \u003d 39 (person-hour).

Labor costs for debugging a program on a computer with complex debugging of a problem:

t from = 1.5 * t A from ,

where t A from - labor costs for debugging a program on a computer with autonomous debugging of one task;

t A from = Q /(40...50 * K ) \u003d 585 / (45 * 0.8) \u003d 16.3 (person-hour).

Hence t from = 1.5 * 16.3 = 24.5 (person-hour).

Calculation of labor costs for the preparation of documentation:

The labor costs for preparing documentation for the task are determined by:

t d = t others + t before ,

where t dr - labor costs for the preparation of materials in the manuscript;

t to - the cost of editing, printing and documentation;

t others = Q /(150...160 * K ) \u003d 585 / (150 * 0.8) \u003d 4.9 (person-hour);

t to \u003d 0.75 * t dr \u003d 0.75 * 4.9 \u003d 3.68 (person-hour);

Hence: t d \u003d 3.68 + 4.9 \u003d 8.58 (person-hour).

So, the total complexity of the software product can be calculated:

t \u003d 39 + 8.58 + 24.5 \u003d 72.08 (person-hour).

4.3 Calculation of the average salary of a programmer

The average salary of a programmer in today's market conditions can vary widely. For the calculation, we take the average hourly wage, which is

T hour \u003d 110tg / hour, which is 17600 tenge / month with an 8-hour working day and a 5-day working week. This figure is close to the real salary of a programmer at the enterprise where the work was carried out.

The programmer's labor costs consist of the programmer's salary and social security contributions. Hence, the cost of remuneration of the programmer is:

Z zp spp \u003d 72.08 * 110 * 1.26 \u003d 9990.29 tenge.

The cost of paying for machine time when debugging a program is determined by multiplying the actual program debugging time by the price of a machine hour of rental time:

Z mv cpp \u003d C hour * t computer ,

where C hour - the price of a machine-hour of rental time, tenge / hour;

t computer - the actual time of debugging the program on the computer;

The actual debugging time is calculated by the formula:

t computer = t to + t from;

We find the price of a machine-hour using the formula:

C hour \u003d Z computer / T computer,

where Z computers - the total cost of operating a computer during the year;

T EVM - actual annual fund of computer time, hour/year;

The total number of days in a year is 365.

The number of holidays and days off is 119.

Maintenance downtime is defined as weekly maintenance of 4 hours.

The total annual fund of working time of the PC is:

T computer \u003d 8 * (365-119) - 52 * 4 \u003d 1760 hours.

4.4 Calculation of the total cost of operating a computer

The total cost of operating a computer can be determined by the formula

Z computer \u003d (Z am + Z el + Z vm + Z tr + Z pr),

where З am - annual depreciation costs, tg/year;

З el - annual costs for electricity consumed by computers, tg/year;

Zvm - annual costs for auxiliary materials, tenge / year;

З tr - expenses for the current repair of a computer, tenge / year;

З pr - annual costs for other and overhead costs, tenge / year;

The amount of annual depreciation deductions is determined by the formula:

Z am \u003d C ball * N am,

where C ball is the book value of the computer, tenge/piece;

N am - depreciation rate,%;

The book value of the PC includes the selling price, transportation costs, equipment installation and adjustment:

C ball \u003d C market + Z mouth;

where C market - the market value of the computer, tenge / piece,

3 mouth - the cost of delivery and installation of a computer, tg / piece.

The computer on which the work was carried out was purchased at a price of C market = 70,000 tenge / piece, the cost of installation and adjustment amounted to approximately 10% of the cost of the computer

Z mouth \u003d 10% * C market \u003d 0.1 * 70000 \u003d 7000 tenge / piece.

C ball = 70000+7000=77000 tg/pc.

The cost of electricity consumed per year is determined by the formula:

Z el \u003d R el * T evm * C el * A,

where R computer is the total power of the computer,

With el - the cost of 1 kWh of electricity,

A is the coefficient of intensive use of the machine's power.

According to the technical data sheet of the computer, R computer = 0.22 kW, the cost of 1 kWh of electricity for enterprises C el = 5.5 tenge, the intensity of the use of the machine A = 0.98.

Then the calculated value of electricity costs:

The costs of current and preventive maintenance are taken equal to 5% of the cost of the computer:

Z tr \u003d 0.05 * C ball \u003d 0.05 * 77000 \u003d 3850tg.

The cost of materials necessary to ensure the normal operation of the PC is about 1% of the cost of the computer:

Other indirect costs associated with the operation of a PC consist of depreciation deductions for buildings, the cost of services of third-party organizations and amount to 5% of the cost of a computer:

Z pr \u003d 0.05 * 77000 \u003d 3850 tenge.

Thus, 3 mv cpp = 19250+2087+770+3850+3850=29807tg.

The cost of the wages of service personnel consists of the basic wages, additional wages and deductions for wages:

Z zp \u003d Z main zp + Z additional zp + Z otch zp.

The amount of the basic salary is determined based on the total number of employees in the state:

Z main zp \u003d 12 * å W i okl ,

where З i okl - the tariff rate of the i-th employee per month, tenge;

The maintenance staff should include an electronics engineer with a monthly salary of 16,000 tenge. and an electrician with a salary of 14000tg.

Then, taking into account that this personnel serves 10 cars, we have the costs for the basic wages of the maintenance personnel will be: З main salary = 12*(16000+ 14000)/10 = 36000 tenge.

The amount of additional salary is 60% of the basic salary: Z additional salary = 0.6 * 36000 = 21600 tenge.

The amount of deductions for social needs is 26% of the amount of additional and basic wages:

Z otch zp \u003d 0.26 * (36000 + 21600) \u003d 14976tg

Then the annual costs for the wages of service personnel will be: З zp = 36000+ 21600 +14976=72576tg.

The total cost of operating a computer during the year will be:

Z computers \u003d 72576 + 19250 + 2087 + 770 + 3850 + 3850 \u003d 102383tg.

Then the price of a car-hour of rented time will be

C hour = 102383/ 1760 = 58.17 tenge

And the cost of paying for machine time will be:

Z mv cpp \u003d 58.17 * 28.18 \u003d 1639.23 tenge.

General expenses are expenses for lighting, heating, utilities, etc. They are assumed to be equal to one third of the program developer's base salary, i.e. 1885.8 tenge

Then the cost of creating a software product will be:

Z spp \u003d Z zp spp + Z mv spp + Z total

Z cpp \u003d 9990.29 + 1639.23 + 1885.8 \u003d 13515.32 tenge.

· Calculations of costs prior to the implementation of the program.

This methodology for calculating economic efficiency was applied on the example of the development, implementation and operation of an information system and was carried out by a group of people in the amount of 1 person assistant, but this person works at 1.5 rates.

The cost of solving the problem without using the program is calculated by the formula:

Zdvs. = ZP epom,

where ZP epom - salary for half a month of an assistant;

The salary of an assistant, taking into account the calculation by hand, is determined by the formula:

RFP= Q * N +From,

where Q is the salary of this employee;

N is the number of employees;

From - deductions for social needs (26%).

Assistant's salary - 24000 tenge.

The monthly salary of an employee at 1.5 rates will be determined by:

Z internal combustion engine \u003d 12000 + 12000 * 0.26 + 6000 + 6000 * 0.26 \u003d 22680tg.

The costs for the development and implementation of the information system will be: Zspp = 13515.32 tenge.

The total costs after the implementation of the software package are determined by: Z pvs. \u003d Zspp + ZP op,

ZP op - the salary of the operator for half a month, which will serve this program.

The operator's salary (0.5 assistant's rate) will be 6000 tenge.

Z pvs. = 13515.32+6000=19515.32 tenge.

Calculation of cost savings

Cost savings from the implementation of the software package is determined by:

E \u003d Z dvs - Zpvs,

where Zdvs - costs before the implementation of the system;

Z pvs - costs after the implementation of the system.

E \u003d 22680-19515.32 \u003d 3164.68 tenge.

Payback period of the software package:

T ok \u003d C / E,

where C is the cost of developing and implementing the system;

E - cost savings from implementation.

T ok \u003d 19515.32 / 3164.68 \u003d 6.2 months

The indicators of the economic efficiency of the thesis work of the “Workstation Manager” lead to the same conclusion about the introduction of an information system that will provide an economic effect.

The result of the implementation of the program led to a reduction in costs, to a reduction in staffing and time savings to be able to solve the problems described above. The payback period for the implementation of the information system was only 6.2 months.

It can also be noted that the automation of workplaces in commercial structures has recently become increasingly widespread. At present, the work of companies depends not only on skillful management, good personnel and a sufficient amount of financial resources, but also on the level of computerization and automation of the company's activities. The use of automated business management systems of the company provides significant assistance in making the right and timely decisions.

5. SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

Labor protection (OT) - a system of legislative acts, socio-economic, organizational, technical, hygienic, medical and preventive measures that ensure the safety, health and performance of a person in the process of work.

The objective of OT is to minimize the likelihood of injury or illness to the worker while ensuring comfort while maximizing labor productivity. Real production conditions are characterized by dangerous and harmful factors. Hazardous production factors are factors whose impact on a worker under certain conditions leads to injury or other occupational diseases. A harmful production factor is one whose impact on a worker under certain conditions leads to illness or a decrease in working capacity. Dangerous - moving parts of mechanisms, hot bodies. Harmful - air, impurities in it, heat, insufficient lighting, noise, vibration, ionizing laser and electromagnetic radiation.

Legislative and normative acts of OT.

The legislation on labor protection reflects the following rules and norms: rules for the organization of labor protection at enterprises; rules on TB and industrial sanitation; rules ensuring individual protection of workers from occupational diseases; rules and norms of special labor protection for women, youth and persons with reduced ability to work; legal norms that provide for liability for violation of labor protection legislation.

OT control system of an industrial enterprise.

The current labor legislation establishes that the director and chief engineer are responsible for the organization of labor at the enterprise. For divisions, such responsibility rests with the heads of workshops, sections, services. The direct management of the OT is carried out by the chief engineer.

For the purposes of the Labor Code, the following functions are assigned to the administration of the enterprise:

Conducting an instructor on HSE, industrial sanitation and fire safety;

Organization of work on the professional selection of employees;

Control over compliance by employees of the enterprise with all requirements and instructions for labor protection.

There are several types of briefing: introductory, primary at the workplace, secondary, unscheduled, current. Introductory briefing is required for all newcomers to the enterprise, as well as seconded persons. Conducted by the Chief Engineer.

The primary workplace is conducted with all newcomers to work. Secondary - not less than six months later. Its goal is to restore the safety rules in the memory of the worker, as well as to analyze specific violations.

Unscheduled is carried out when changing the technological process, rules for OT or when introducing new technology.

The current briefing is carried out with the employees of the enterprise, before the work of which an admission to the work order is issued.

Of great importance for labor safety is professional selection, the purpose of which is to identify persons who are unsuitable for their physical data to participate in the production process. In addition, it is important to follow the instructions for labor protection, which are developed and approved by the administration of the enterprise together with the trade union. The OT service plays a special role in the organization of work on the prevention of accidents.

In the conditions of modern production, individual measures to improve working conditions turn out to be insufficient, therefore they are carried out in a complex manner, forming a labor safety management system (OSMS) - a set of a control object and a control part connected by information transmission channels. The object of management is labor safety in the workplace and is characterized by the impact of people with objects and tools.

The state of control objects is determined by input parameters - factors affecting the safety of labor activity (X 1 ,...,X n). These include the safety of structures, the safety of technological processes, the hygienic parameters of the working environment and socio-psychological factors. Since real production conditions are not absolutely safe, the output characteristic of the system is a certain level of safety (Y=f(X 1 ,...,X n)). The outputs of the control objects are connected through the information collection and processing system with the inputs of the control part. Information about deviations from normal labor safety identified during the control process, potentially hazardous factors, is sent to the managing body for analysis and decision-making aimed at regulating the control parameters of the inputs of the control object. Thus, SUBTs operate on the principle of feedback and, at the same time, closed autonomous control is carried out. SMS is an element of a higher order management system (Ministry of National Economy). Therefore, external information is received at the input of the control system: legislative, directive, normative.

Influence on the person of a microclimate in production conditions.

One of the necessary conditions for healthy and highly productive work is to ensure clean air and normal meteorological conditions in the working area of the premises, i.e. up to 2 meters above floor level. Favorable air composition: N 2 - 78%, O 2 - 20.9%, Ar + Ne - 0.9%, CO 2 - 0.03%, other gases - 0.01%. Such an air composition is rare, because due to technological processes, harmful substances appear in the air: vapors of liquid solvents (gasoline, mercury), gases that appear during casting, welding and heat treatment of metal. Dust is generated as a result of crushing, breaking, transportation, packaging, packaging. Smoke is formed as a result of fuel combustion in furnaces, fog - when using cutting fluids. Harmful substances enter the body mainly through the respiratory tract and are classified as dangerous and harmful production factors. According to the nature of the impact, harmful substances are divided into:

General toxic. They cause poisoning of the whole organism with CO, cyanide compounds, Pb, Hg).

Annoying. Cause irritation of the respiratory tract and mucous membranes (chlorine, ammonia, acetone).

Substances acting as allergens (solvents and varnishes based on nitro compounds).

Mutagenic. Lead to a change in heredity (Pb, Mn, radioactive substances).

A number of harmful substances have a fibrogenic effect on the human body, causing irritation of the mucous membrane without getting into the blood (dust: metals, plastic, wood, emery, glass). This dust is formed during metalworking, casting and stamping. The greatest danger is represented by finely dispersed dust. Unlike coarse-dispersion, it is in suspension and easily penetrates into the lungs. Welding dust contains 90% of particles< 5мкм, что делает ее особо вредной для организма человека, так как в ее составе находится марганец и хром. В результате воздействия вредных веществ на человека могут возникнуть профессиональные заболевания, наиболее тяжелым из которых является силикоз, который появляется в результате вдыхания двуокиси кремния (SiO 2) в литейных цехах.

Regulation of the microclimate.

Meteorological conditions (or microclimate) in production are determined by the following parameters: air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, pressure. However, pressure drops have a significant impact on human health. The need to take into account the main parameters of the microclimate can be explained by considering the heat balance between the human body and the environment. The value of heat release Q by the human body depends on the degree of load under certain conditions and can range from 80 J / s (resting state) to 500 J / s (hard work). For normal physiological processes to occur in the human body, it is necessary that the heat released by the body be removed to the environment. The release of heat by the body to the environment occurs as a result of human heat conduction through clothing (Q T), body convection (Q K), radiation to surrounding surfaces (Q P), evaporation of moisture from the surface (Q app), part of the heat is spent on heating the exhaled air . It follows from this: Q \u003d Q T + Q P + Q K + Q use + Q V ..

Normal thermal well-being is ensured by observing the thermal balance, as a result of which the human temperature remains constant and equal to 36 ° C. This human ability to maintain the body constant when the environmental parameters change is called thermoregulation. At high air temperature in the room, the blood vessels expand, resulting in an increased blood flow to the surface of the body and heat transfer to the environment increases. However, at t=35° C of the environment, heat transfer by convection and radiation stops. With a decrease in ambient t, blood vessels narrow and blood flow to the surface of the body slows down, and heat transfer decreases. Air humidity affects the thermoregulation of the body: high humidity (more than 85%) makes it difficult to thermoregulate due to a decrease in sweat evaporation, and too low (less than 20%) causes the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract to dry out. The optimum value of humidity is 40-60%. The movement of air has a great influence on the well-being of a person. In a hot room, it helps to increase the heat transfer of the human body and improves the condition at low temperatures. In winter, the air velocity should not exceed 0.2-0.5 m/s, and in summer - 0.2-1 m/s. The speed of air movement can have an adverse effect on the spread of harmful substances. The required composition of the air can be achieved through the following measures:

1) mechanization and automation of production processes, including remote control. These measures protect against harmful substances, thermal radiation. Increase labor productivity;

2) the use of technological processes and equipment that exclude the formation of harmful substances. Of great importance is the sealing of equipment in which harmful substances are located;

3) protection from sources of thermal radiation;

4) ventilation and heating devices;

5) use of personal protective equipment.

Ensuring fire safety and explosion safety.

General information about the processes of combustion, fires and explosions.

Combustion is a chemical oxidation reaction accompanied by the processes of heat and light release. For combustion to occur, it is necessary to have a combustible substance, an oxidizing agent (O 2, Cr, F, Br, I) and an ignition source. Depending on the properties of the combustible mixture, combustion can be homogeneous (all substances have the same state of aggregation) and heterogeneous. Depending on the speed of flame propagation, combustion can be deflagration (of the order of several m/s), explosive (»10 m/s), detonation (» 1000 m/s). Fires are characterized by deflationary combustion. Denatation combustion - in which the ignition impulse is transferred from layer to layer not due to thermal conductivity, but due to a pressure impulse. The pressure in the denatation wave is much higher than the pressure during the explosion, which leads to severe damage.

The combustion process is divided into several types: flash, ignition, ignition, spontaneous combustion and explosion.

Flash - rapid combustion of a combustible mixture not accompanied by the formation of compressed gases when an ignition source is introduced into it. In this case, for the continuation of combustion, the amount of heat that is formed during the short-term flash process is insufficient.

Ignition is the phenomenon of the occurrence of combustion under the influence of an ignition source.

Ignition - ignition, accompanied by the appearance of a flame. In this case, the rest of the combustible substance remains cold.

Spontaneous combustion is a phenomenon of a sharp increase in the rate of thermal reactions in a substance, leading to combustion in the absence of an ignition source. In this case, oxidation occurs due to the combination of o2 of air and a heated substance due to the heat of the chemical oxidation reaction. Spontaneous combustion is the spontaneous appearance of a flame. An explosion is the burning of a substance, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.

Causes of fires at the enterprise. The enterprises of the radio-electronic and machine-building industry are characterized by an increased fire hazard, because. they are characterized by the complexity of production processes, a significant amount of flammable and combustible substances. The main cause of fires at the enterprise is the violation of technical specifications. The basics of fire protection are defined by GOST "Fire Safety" and "Explosion Safety". These standards allow such a frequency of occurrence of fires and explosions that the probability of their occurrence<10 -6 . Мероприятия по пожарной профилактике подразделяются на организационные, технические и эксплуатационные. Организационные мероприятия предусматривают правильную эксплуатацию машин, правильное содержание зданий и противопожарный инструктаж рабочих и служащих. К техническим мероприятиям относятся соблюдение противопожарных норм, правил при проектировании зданий, при устройстве электропроводки, отопления, вентиляции и освещения. Мероприятия режимного характера - запрещение курения в неустановленных местах, производство сварных и огнеопасных работ в пожароопасных помещениях. Эксплуатационные мероприятия - профилактические осмотры, ремонт и испытания технологического оборудования.

Fire-prevention measures for the design of enterprises.

A building is considered to be properly designed if, along with the solution of functional, sanitary and technical requirements, fire safety conditions are provided. In accordance with GOST, all building materials are divided into three groups according to flammability:

Fireproof, under the influence of fire and high temperatures do not ignite or char (metals and materials of mineral origin);

Slow-burning, capable of igniting and burning under the influence of an external source of ignition (wood structures coated with a fire-retardant layer);

Combustible, able to burn independently after the source of ignition is removed.

In case of fire, structures can heat up to high temperatures, burn out, get through cracks, which can lead to fires in adjacent rooms.

The ability of a structure to resist the effects of fire for some time while maintaining operational properties is called fire resistance. The fire resistance of a structure is characterized by the fire resistance limit, which is the time in hours from the start of testing the structure until the appearance of cracks in it, holes through which combustion products penetrate. Depending on the value of the fire resistance limit, buildings are divided into 5 degrees. It is possible to increase the fire resistance of a building by cladding and plastering metal parts of the structure. When facing a steel column with gypsum boards 6-7 cm thick, the fire resistance increases from 0.3 to 3 hours. One of the effective means of wood protection is its impregnation with antipyrines. Zoning of the territory consists in grouping into a separate complex of objects that are related in terms of functional purpose and fire hazard. In this case, rooms with increased fire risk should be located on the leeward side. Because boiler rooms and foundry shops are the causes of fire, they are located on the leeward side in relation to open warehouses with flammable substances. To prevent the spread of fire from one building to another, fire breaks are arranged between them. The amount of heat transferred from a burning object to a neighboring building depends on the properties of combustible materials, the temperature of the flame, the size of the radiating surface, the presence of fire barriers, the relative position of buildings and meteorological conditions. When determining the location of the fire gap, the degree of fire resistance of the building is taken into account. Fire barriers are used to prevent the spread of fire. These include: walls, partitions, doors, gates, hatches, ceilings. Fire walls must be made of non-combustible materials with a fire resistance limit of at least hours. And windows and doors with a fire resistance limit of at least 1 hour. Ceilings should not have openings and openings through which combustion products can penetrate.

Fire extinguishing agents and fire extinguishing apparatus . In the practice of extinguishing fires, the following principles of cessation of combustion are most widely used:

1) isolation of the combustion source by diluting it with non-combustible gases to a concentration at which combustion is extinguished;

2) cooling of the combustion center;

3) intense deceleration of the rate of a chemical reaction in a flame;

4) mechanical failure of the flame as a result of exposure to a strong jet of gas or water;

5) creation of fire barrier conditions under which the flame does not spread through narrow channels.

Apparatus for extinguishing fires . Portable fire extinguishers are used to extinguish fires. Hand-held fire extinguishers include foam, carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide-bromoethyl and powder.

Foam fire extinguishers are used to extinguish a fire and have the following advantages: simplicity, lightness, quick actuation of the fire extinguisher and ejection of liquid in the form of a jet. The foam fire extinguisher charge consists of two parts: acidic and alkaline. The enterprises use foam fire extinguishers OHP10. Duration - 65 seconds, range - 8 meters, weight - 15 kg. The fire extinguisher is activated by turning the handle up to failure. This opens the cork of the flask, then the fire extinguisher turns its head down, as a result of which the acid is poured into the cylinder and a chemical reaction occurs. The resulting CO 2 causes foaming of the liquid, creates a pressure of 1000 kPa in the cylinder and ejects the liquid in the form of a foam jet from the cylinder.

Fire alarm . The ability to quickly extinguish a fire depends on timely notification of a fire. A common means of notification is telephone communication. Also, a fast and reliable type of fire communication is an electrical system, which consists of 4 parts: a detector device (sensors), which are installed at the facility and are activated automatically; a receiving station that receives signals from the recipient; a wire system connecting the sensors to the receiving station; batteries. Electric fire alarms, depending on the connection scheme with the receiving station, can be beam and ring. With a beam scheme, a separate wiring is made from the sensor to the receiving station, called a beam. The beam consists of two independent wires: direct and reverse. With the ring scheme, all detectors are installed in series on one common wire, both ends of which are led to the receiving device.

Automatic fire detectors, depending on the influencing factor, are smoke, heat and light. The smoke factor reacts to the appearance of smoke. Thermal to increase the temperature of the air in the room. Light - on the radiation of an open flame. According to the type of sensitive element used, thermal automatic detectors are divided into bimetallic, thermocouple and semiconductor.

The operation of any type of equipment is potentially associated with the presence of certain hazardous or harmful production factors.

The main directions of creating safe and harmless working conditions.

Goals of mechanization: the creation of safe and harmless working conditions when performing a specific operation.

The exclusion of a person from the sphere of labor is ensured by using RTK, the creation of which requires a high scientific and technical potential at the stage of both design and manufacturing and maintenance, hence significant capital costs.

GOST 12.2... SSBT

The requirements are aimed at ensuring safety, reliability, and ease of use.

Machine safety def. the lack of the possibility of changing the parameters of the technological. process or design parameters of machines, which eliminates the possibility of the occurrence of dangerous. factors.

Reliability is determined by the probability of disruption of normal operation, which leads to the emergence of dangerous factors and emergency (emergency) situations. At the design stage, reliability is determined by the correct choice of design parameters, as well as automatic control and regulation devices.

The convenience of operation is determined by the psycho-physiological state of the service. personnel.

During the design phase, user-friendliness is determined by the right choice of machine design and the right design of the user's PM.

GOST 12.2.032-78 SSBT. Workplace when performing work while sitting. General ergonomic requirements.

GOST 12.2.033-78 SSBT. Workplace when performing work while standing. General ergonomic requirements.

Hazardous areas of equipment and means of protection against them

Hazardous area of equipment - production, in which it is potentially possible for the worker to be exposed to dangerous and harmful factors and, as a result, the effect of harmful factors leading to illness.

The danger is localized around moving parts of the equipment or near the action of sources of various types of radiation.

The dimensions of the dangerous zones can be constant when the distances between the working bodies of the machine are stable and variable.

The means of protection against the effects of hazardous areas of equipment is divided into: collective and individual.

1. Collective

1.1 Protective

1.1.1 stationary (non-removable);

1.1.2 mobile (removable);

1.1.3 portable (temporary)

2. Protective means are designed to exclude the possibility of an employee entering the danger zone: the zone of leading parts, the zone of thermal radiation, the zone of laser radiation, etc.

3. Safety

3.1 the presence of a weak link (fusible link in the fuse);

3.2 with automatic restoration of the kinematic chain

4 Blocking

4.1 mechanical;

4.2 electrical;

4.3 photo-electric;

4.4 radiation;

4.5 hydraulic;

4.6 pneumatic;

4.7 pneumatic

5 Signaling

5.1 by purpose (operational, warning, identification means);

5.2 by method of information transfer

5.2.1 light;

5.2.2 sound;

5.2.3 combined

6 Signaling devices are designed to warn and give a signal in the event that a working equipment enters a hazardous area.

7 Remote control protections

7.1 visual;

7.2 remote

8. Designed to remove the slave. places of personnel working with bodies providing supervision of processes or exercising control outside the danger zone. Means of special protection that provide protection for ventilation, heating, lighting systems in hazardous areas of equipment.

Household (household needs);

Surface (precipitation).

Regulation of the content of harmful substances in wastewater

1. sanitary and toxicological;

2. general sanitary;

3. organoleptic.

1. toxicological;

2. fishery.

1. extremely dangerous;

2. especially dangerous;

3. moderately dangerous;

4. low-risk.

Regulatory document

Protection of the lithosphere

solid waste

1.Metals: black; colored; precious; rare

2. Non-metals: hose; paper; rubber; wood; plastics; ceramics; sludge; glass; textile

liquid waste

1Sewage sludge;

2 Waste cutting fluids;

3Chemical precipitation;

Negative impact on nature

1.1 contamination of the territory (changes in the physical and chemical composition of soils, the formation of chemical and biological hazards due to the fact that not all wastes are buried in the proper place, especially radioactive wastes);

2Indirect

2.1destruction of the green cover, destruction of the landscape;

2.2irreplaceable additional development of minerals that go to the needs of society.

Hydrosphere protection

Each industrial structure has a water supply and sanitation system. Preference is given to the circulating water supply system (i.e. part of the water is used in technical operations, cleaned and re-introduced, and part is discharged.

The drainage system provides for a sewerage system, which includes devices, including cleaning ones. There are 3 types of wastewater on the territory of the enterprise:

Production (technical processes);

Household (household needs);

Surface (precipitation).

For water bodies for drinking and cultural purposes, there are 3 DPs:

4. sanitary and toxicological;

5. general sanitary;

6. organoleptic.

For fishery reservoirs 2 LPW:

3. toxicological;

4. fishery.

The main element of the water and sanitary legislation is MPC in water. All in-va according to MPC are divided into:

5. extremely dangerous;

6. especially dangerous;

7. moderately dangerous;

8. low-risk.

Organoleptic properties - characterized by the presence of smell, taste, color, turbidity.

Regulatory document

CH 46.30-88. Sanitary norms and rules for the protection of surface waters from pollution.

Waste is generated as in the performance. technological process, and after the end of the service life of machinery, devices, VT, equipment, etc.

All types of waste that are generated in this case are divided into groups: solid, liquid.

solid waste

3.Metals: black; colored; precious; rare

4. Non-metals: hose; paper; rubber; wood; plastics; ceramics; sludge; glass; textile

liquid waste

4Sewage sludge;

5 Waste cutting fluids;

3.1 contamination of the territory (changes in the physical and chemical composition of soils, the formation of chemical and biological hazards due to the fact that not all wastes are buried in the proper place, especially radioactive wastes);

4Indirect

4.1 destruction of the green cover, destruction of the landscape;

CONCLUSION

The impact applied to the automatic control system causes a change in the controlled value. The change in the controlled variable over time determines the transient process, the nature of which depends on the impact and on the properties of the system.

Whether the system is a tracking system, at the output of which it is necessary to reproduce the law of change of the control signal as accurately as possible, or an automatic stabilization system, where, regardless of the disturbance, the controlled variable must be maintained at a given level, the transient process is represented by a dynamic characteristic, by which one can judge the quality of work systems.

Any action applied to the system causes a transient process. However, consideration usually includes those transient processes that are caused by typical influences that create conditions for a more complete revelation of the dynamic properties of the system. Typical actions include jump and step signals that occur, for example, when the system is turned on or when the load changes abruptly; impact signals, which are pulses of short duration compared to the transient time.

In order to qualitatively fulfill the task of regulation in various changing operating conditions, the system must have a certain (given) stability margin.

In stable automatic control systems, the transient process decays over time and a steady state occurs. Both in the transient mode and in the steady state, the output controlled value differs from the desired law of change by a certain amount, which is an error and characterizes the accuracy of the tasks. Steady state errors determine the static accuracy of the system and are of great practical importance. Therefore, when drawing up the terms of reference for the design of an automatic control system, the requirements for static accuracy are separately highlighted.

Of great practical interest is the behavior of the system in the transient process. The indicators of the transient process are the time of the transient process, the overshoot and the number of oscillations of the controlled value around the line of the steady value during the transient process.

The transient process indicators characterize the quality of the automatic control system and are one of the most important requirements for the dynamic properties of the system.

Thus, in order to ensure the necessary dynamic properties, automatic control systems must be subject to requirements for stability margin, static accuracy, and the quality of the transient process.

In cases where the impact (control or disturbing) is not a typical signal and cannot be reduced to a typical one, that is, when it cannot be considered as a signal with a given time function and is a random process, probabilistic characteristics are introduced into consideration. Usually, the dynamic strength of the system is estimated using the concept of root-mean-square error. Therefore, in the case of automatic control systems that are under the influence of random stationary processes, in order to obtain the desired dynamic properties of the system, certain requirements must be imposed on the value of the root-mean-square error.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Message of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev to the people of Kazakhstan "New decade - new economic recovery - new opportunities for Kazakhstan", Astana: JURIST.2010;

2. Klyuev A.S., Glazov B.V., Dubrovsky A.Kh. Design of automation systems for technological processes. M.: Energy, 1980.-512 p.

3. PM4-2-78. Automation systems for technological processes. Schemes are functional. Execution technique. M.: Proektmontazh avtomatika, 1978. - 39 p.

4. Golubyatnikov V.A., Shuvalov V.V. Automation of production processes in the chemical industry. Moscow: Chemistry, 1985.

5. Plotsky L.M., Lapshenkov G.I. Automation of chemical production. M.: Chemistry, 1982.- 250 p.

6. Kuzminov G.P. Fundamentals of automation and automation of production processes. LTA them. S.M. Kirova.- L., 1974.- 89 p.

7. Buylov G.P. Guidelines for the implementation of course work on the course "Fundamentals of Automation and Automation of Production Processes" LTI TsBP.- L., 1974.- 64 p.

8. Kamraze A.I., Fiterman M.Ya. Instrumentation and automation. M.: Higher School, 1980.- 208 p.

9. Smirnov A.A. Fundamentals of automation of pulp and paper and wood-chemical industries. M.: Timber industry, 1974.- 366 p.

10. Automatic devices, regulators and computer systems. Ed. B.D. Kosharsky. L .: Mashinostroenie, 1976. - 488 p.

11. Balmasov E.Ya. Automation and automation of processes for the production of wood-based plastics and boards. M.: Timber industry, 1977.- 216 p.

12. Kazakov A.V., Kulakov M.V., Melyushev Yu.K. Fundamentals of automation and automation of production processes. M.: Mashinostroenie, 1970.- 374 p.

13. Handbook of Automation of Pulp and Paper Enterprises. Ed. Tseshkovsky E.V. etc. M.: Timber industry, 1979.-296s.

14. Handbook of automation in the hydrolysis, sulphite-alcohol and wood-chemical industries Pod. ed. Finkel A.I. etc. M.: Timber industry, 1976.- 184 p.

15. Firkovich V.S. Automation of technological processes of hydrolysis production. M.: Timber industry, 1980.- 224p.

16. Dianov V.G. Technological measurements and instrumentation of chemical production. M.: Chemistry, 1973.- 328 p.

17. Preobrazhensky L.N., Alexander V.A., Likhter D.A. Special devices and regulators for pulp and paper production. M.: Timber industry, 1972.- 264 p.

18. Belousov A.P., Dashchenko A.I. Fundamentals of automation.

19. Nudler G.I., Tulchik I.K., “Fundamentals of production automation”. - M "Higher School" 1976.

20. Isaakovich R.Ya. "Technological measurements and devices". - M: Nedra, 1979.

21. Isaakovich R.Ya. "Technological measurements and devices". - M: Nedra, 1979.

22. "Automation of technological processes". Under the editorship of Professor E.B. Karnina. - M. 1997

23. Golubyatnikov V.A., Shuvalov V.V. Automation of production processes

24. Klyuev A.S. Design of automation systems. M., Energy, 1980, p.512.

25. Gulyaev V.G. New Information Technologies M.: PRIOR Publishing House, 1999

26. V. I. Vodopyanov. Organization, planning and enterprise management: Met. allowance.: DVGTU, 1992. - 40 p.

27. Handbook on the design of automated control systems, edited by V.I. Krupovich, Yu.G. Barybin, M.L. Samover.

The range of objects and management operations is very wide. It covers technological processes and units, groups of units, workshops, enterprises, human teams, organizations, etc.

Control objects and types of influence on them.

As a rule, two types of actions are applied to the control object: control - r(t) and disturbing f(t); the state of the object is characterized by the variable x(t):

f(t) r(t) an object x(t)

management

The change in the controlled value x(t) is determined both by the control action r(t) and by the disturbing or interference f(t). Let's define these influences.

The concept of a system element

Such operations should include:

1) conversion of the controlled value into a signal;

3) signal storage;

4) formation of program signals;

5) comparison of control and program signals and formation of a mismatch signal;

6) execution of logical operations;

7) signal distribution over various transmission channels;

8) the use of signals to influence the control object.

For the correct and high-quality conduct of the process, some of its coordinates - controlled ones - must be maintained within certain boundaries or change according to a certain law.

The third group of control operations - operations to maintain a given law of coordinate change - is studied in the theory of automatic control.

Open loop principle

The essence of the principle is that the control algorithm is built only on the basis of a given functioning algorithm and is not controlled by the actual value of the controlled variable.

Deviation control principle

(feedback principle).

Disturbance control principle(principle of compensation).

The founder of the school of administrative management, Henri Fayol, created the doctrine of administrative management, the main provisions of which he outlined in his book "General and Industrial Administration" (1916).

This doctrine presents a system of management (administration) principles:

division of labor (improves qualifications and the level of work performance);
(the right to give commands and be responsible for the results);
discipline (observance by workers and managers of the rules and agreements that exist in the organization);
unity of management, or unity of command (fulfillment of orders of only one leader and accountability to only one leader);
unity of leadership or direction (one leader and one plan for a group of people acting to achieve a unified one);
subordination of individual interests to common ones;
staff remuneration (payment should reflect the state of the organization and stimulate the work of staff);
centralization (the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and should be chosen so that it gives the best results);
scalar chain (clear construction of the target sequence of commands from management to subordinates);
order (everyone should know their place in the organization);
justice (workers should be treated fairly and kindly);
staff stability (personnel must be in a stable situation);
initiative (managers should stimulate the presentation of ideas by subordinates);
corporate spirit (it is necessary to create a spirit of unity and joint action, to unite the team).

The principles of the classical management system have been developed in modern "schools of management" as fundamental principles.

Important in management are general management principles, which are the link between the fundamental basis of management theory - the laws of management - and management practice. The general principles of management directly follow from the laws of management and reflect the objective reality.

General principles of management these are the rules that guide the management of objects of various industry affiliations or specifics, i.e. they are inherent in all control systems, therefore they are called general. This group of principles reflects the requirements for management systems and management activities in general.

The main ones include the following:

the principle of unity of politics and economics;
scientific character;
consistency and complexity;
the principle of unity of command in management and collegiality in making decisions;
the principle of centralization and decentralization;
the principle of proportionality in management;
the principle of unity of command in management;
the principle of saving time;
the principle of priority of management functions over structure when creating an organization and vice versa, the priority of structure over management functions in existing organizations;
the principle of delegation of authority;
feedback principle;
the principle of economy;
the principle of efficiency;
principle of motivation.

The principle of unity of politics and economics.

The economy is the basis of any state and society and is subject to objective economic laws and patterns. Their accounting and reasonable use leads to economic growth, and ignoring or not taking them into account manifests itself in an economic recession or crisis. Politics reflects the superstructure of any state and is a concentrated expression of the economy. This means that in carrying out economic activity, society cannot but take into account the political consequences of certain economic measures on social development, on changes in the base and superstructure.

Scientific.

This principle determines that management activities, formation, functioning, and development of management systems should be based on scientific data, i.e. objective laws and regularities. In addition, the principle of scientificity involves the use of the existing arsenal of modern scientific methods for cognition of control objects, the study of real situations, the conditions in which the vital activity of these objects takes place. A feature of this principle is also the application in practice of the achievements of the theory and experimental data of scientific management of objects of various kinds, incl. various industry affiliations.

Consistency and complexity.

The principles of the system approach provide for the study of the control object and the control system jointly and inseparably. Consistency means the need to use system analysis and synthesis in every management decision. In a management system, an incorrect, erroneous decision can nullify the entire activity of the system, lead to its destruction. Complexity in management means the need for a comprehensive coverage of the entire managed system, taking into account all directions, all aspects of activity, all properties.

The principle of unity of command in management and collegiality in making decisions.

The principle of unity of command comes from the fact that each subordinate should have one immediate superior who gives him orders, orders, and the subordinate reports only to him. Any decision made should be developed collegially (collectively). This means the comprehensiveness (complexity) of its developments and taking into account the opinions of many experts on various issues. The decision taken collectively is carried out under the personal responsibility of the head of the organization.

The principle of centralization and decentralization.

Centralization is when people, power, responsibility, structures are subordinate to one center, one person or any governing body. Centralization makes it possible to ensure strict coordination of links within the control system.

Decentralization occurs as a result of the transfer of part of the power, authority and responsibility, as well as the right to make decisions within their competence to lower levels of management. As a result of decentralization, there is a “dispersal” of power. Decentralization contributes to structural flexibility and the development of adaptive capabilities of the management system. Centralization and decentralization are in unity and complement each other. A completely decentralized governance structure cannot exist, as it will lose its integrity. On the other hand, a management system that is completely devoid of decentralization cannot exist - with the loss of autonomy, it has its own structure.

The principle of proportionality in management.

This principle is reflected in the correlation between the management and managed parts of the organization. Its essence lies in ensuring mutual correspondence between the subject and the object of management. The growth and complication of the control object, for example, the production subsystem, leads to the growth and complication of the control subject (control subsystem). The level of compliance of the control subject with the control object can be determined by a number of indicators, such as: the ratio of the number of managerial personnel and workers; the ratio of the power of auxiliary and service subsystems (information, mathematical, technical) to the needs of functional units), etc. The principle of proportionality in management is relevant when finding and maintaining the correct balance between collegiality and one-man command, organization and self-organization, centralization and decentralization, which is the circle of the most important management tasks.

The principle of unity of command in management.

A rational management structure is a structure in which a clear personal assignment of the powers of management for each specific issue at each level and in relation to each object of management (division or employee) is established for a specific manager. Each manager is completely clear about the limits of his competence and acts in accordance with these ideas.

The principle of saving time.

The principle of saving time requires a constant reduction in the complexity of operations in the control process. This primarily applies to information operations for the preparation and implementation of decisions.

The principle of priority of control functions over the structure when creating an organization and vice versa, priority of structures over management functions in existing organizations.

The creation of new management systems is carried out to implement a specific set of goals. Each goal is realized by a set of tasks. Then these tasks are grouped by commonality, a set of functions is formed for these groups, and then a set of production and management links and structures. superfluous elements of the structure "die off", and the missing ones gradually appear, along with them "die off" or new functions appear.

The principle of delegation of authority.

The principle of delegation of authority consists in the transfer by the head of a part of the powers assigned to him, rights and responsibilities to his competent employees. The main practical value of the principle is that the manager frees his time from less complex everyday affairs and can concentrate his efforts on solving problems of a complex managerial level.

Feedback principle.

Feedback in management systems is a special form of stable internal communication between the subject and the object of management, which is informational in nature and is a necessary condition for the flow of management processes, and also aims to coordinate management actions. The essence of the feedback principle is that any deviation of the system from its natural or predetermined state is the source of a new movement in the control subject, aimed at maintaining the system in its predetermined state.

The principle of economy.

This requirement is a rule of management activity, a management system that determines: management should be carried out with the least expenditure of resources, however, not to the detriment of its rationality and effectiveness. In any case, their indicators should be correlated and optimally combined. Comparison of various options for the results and costs of management gives an answer about its cost-effectiveness.

The Principle of Efficiency.

This principle is a requirement for management activities to ensure high performance (profitability) of the functioning of the management object. Its quantitative certainty can be expressed through the performance indicators of the management object and supplemented by the corresponding synthetic indicators for evaluating the management work itself.

Principle of motivation.

This principle states that management can be highly effective only with fair incentives for the personnel of the facility and the subject of management. Stimulation is carried out in two main forms - material and moral-psychological, and they should be harmoniously combined with each other with the leading and determining role of material factors motivating successful activity.

Management principles.

Management is a rational way of managing business organizations. The main importance is given to the use of clear and precise methods of a purely pragmatic nature in order to most effectively use resources and other conditions, as well as business vision opportunities. Since management is based on modern science and the theory of managing people and business, its system of principles includes the principles of classical management schools, general management principles and principles developed by the modern development of the economy. Some modern management principles include:

consumer orientation;
focus on the prospect of business development, expanding the scope of activities;
heightened sense of responsibility for the affairs of the organization;
focus on the final results of activities;
desire for innovation;
leadership orientation;
staff enthusiasm;
development of all the best that is in people: skills, abilities, desire to do things in an original, professional, efficient, independent way;
reliance on universal human values;
high performance standards;
support objective laws and realities of market relations;
solving new problems with new methods;
the growing role of the informal organization.
freedom and rigidity at the same time;
constant search for what can be achieved;
actions must be decisive, but balanced;
concentration of its activities on priority programs.

There are a number of principles for the rational organization of processes.

General concepts

The theory of automatic control (TAU) appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first as a theory of regulation. The widespread use of steam engines has led to the need for regulators, that is, special devices that maintain a stable mode of operation of the steam engine. This gave rise to scientific research in the field of control of technical objects. It turned out that the results and conclusions of this theory can be applied to the control of objects of different nature with different principles of action. At present, its sphere of influence has expanded to the analysis of the dynamics of such systems as economic, social, etc. Therefore, the former name "Theory of automatic control" was replaced by a broader one - "Theory of automatic control".

Managing any object(we will denote the control object as OC) there is an impact on it in order to achieve the required states or processes. An aircraft, a machine tool, an electric motor, etc. can serve as an OS. Managing an object with the help of technical means without human intervention is called automatic control. The set of OS and automatic control means is called automatic control system (ACS).

The main task of automatic control is the maintenance of a certain law of change of one or more physical quantities characterizing the processes occurring in the OS, without the direct participation of a person. These quantities are called controlled variables. If a baking oven is considered as an OC, then the controlled variable will be the temperature, which must change according to a given program in accordance with the requirements of the technological process.

Fundamental Principles of Management

It is customary to distinguish three fundamental principles of management: open-loop principle, compensation principle, feedback principle.

Compensation principle

If the disturbing factor distorts the output value to unacceptable limits, then apply compensation principle(Fig. 6, KU - corrective device).

Let y about- the value of the output quantity, which is required to be provided according to the program. In fact, due to the perturbation f, the output registers the value y. Value e \u003d y o - y called deviation from the set value. If somehow it is possible to measure the value f, then the control action can be corrected u at the input of the op-amp, summing the CU signal with a corrective action proportional to the disturbance f and offset its effect.

Examples of compensation systems: a bimetallic pendulum in a clock, a compensation winding of a DC machine, etc. In Fig. 6, there is a thermal resistance in the NE circuit R t , the value of which varies depending on fluctuations in the ambient temperature, correcting the voltage on the NO.

The virtue of the principle of compensation: quick response to disturbances. It is more accurate than the open loop principle. Flaw: the impossibility of taking into account all possible perturbations in this way.

Feedback principle

The most widely used in technology feedback principle(Fig. 7). Here, the control variable is corrected depending on the output value y(t). And it doesn't matter what perturbations act on the OS. If the value y(t) deviates from the required, then the signal is corrected u(t) to reduce this deviation. The connection between the output of an op-amp and its input is called main feedback (OS).

In a particular case (Fig. 8), the memory generates the required value of the output value y o (t), which is compared with the actual value at the output of the ACS y(t). Deviation e = y o -y from the output of the comparing device is fed to the input regulator P, which combines UU, UO, ChE. If e 0, then the controller generates the control action u(t), acting until equality is ensured e = 0, or y = y o. Since the difference of signals is applied to the regulator, such feedback is called negative, Unlike positive feedback when the signals are added.

Such a control in the deviation function is called regulation, and such an ACS is called automatic control system(SAR). So, Fig. 9 shows a simplified diagram of the ACS of a baking oven. The role of the memory here is performed by a potentiometer, the voltage on which U h is compared with the voltage on the thermocouple U m. Their difference U through the amplifier it is fed to the executive engine of the ID, which regulates the position of the rheostat engine in the NO circuit through the gearbox. The presence of an amplifier indicates that this ATS is indirect control system, since the energy for control functions is taken from external power sources, in contrast to direct control systems, in which energy is taken directly from the OS, as, for example, in the ACS of the water level in the tank (Fig. 10).

The disadvantage of the inverse principle connection is the inertia of the system. Therefore, it is often used combination of this principle with the principle of compensation, which allows you to combine the advantages of both principles: the speed of response to a disturbance of the compensation principle and the accuracy of regulation, regardless of the nature of the disturbances of the feedback principle.

Questions

What is called management?
What is called automatic control?
What is an automatic control system?
What is the main task of automatic control?
What is a control object?
What is a controlled variable?
What is the governing body?
What is a sensitive element?
What are input and output quantities?
What is a control action?
What is called indignation?
What is called deviation from a given value?
What is a control device?
What is a master device?
What is a functional diagram and what does it consist of?
What is the difference between a signal and a physical quantity?
What is the essence of the principle of open control?
What is the principle of compensation?
What is the essence of the feedback principle?
List the advantages and disadvantages of management principles?
What special case of control is called regulation?
What is the difference between direct and indirect systems?

The main types of ACS

Depending on the principle and law of the functioning of the memory that sets the program for changing the output value, the main types of ACS are distinguished: stabilization systems, software, tracking And self-tuning systems, among which are extreme, optimal And adaptive systems.

IN stabilization systems(Fig.9,10) provides a constant value of the controlled variable for all types of disturbances, i.e. y(t) = const. The memory generates a reference signal with which the output value is compared. The memory, as a rule, allows setting the reference signal, which allows you to change the value of the output quantity at will.

IN software systems a change in the controlled value is provided in accordance with the program generated by the memory. A cam mechanism, a punched tape or magnetic tape reader, etc. can be used as a memory. Clockwork toys, tape recorders, players, etc. can be attributed to this type of self-propelled guns. Distinguish systems with time program(for example, Fig. 1), providing y = f(t), And systems with a spatial program, in which y = f(x), used where it is important to obtain the required trajectory in space at the output of the ACS, for example, in a copy machine (Fig. 11), the law of motion in time does not play a role here.

tracking systems differ from software programs only in that the program y = f(t) or y = f(x) unknown in advance. A device that monitors the change of some external parameter acts as a memory. These changes will determine the changes in the output value of the ACS. For example, a robot hand that mimics the movements of a human hand.

All three considered types of ACS can be built according to any of the three fundamental principles of control. They are characterized by the requirement that the output value coincide with some prescribed value at the ACS input, which itself can change. That is, at any moment in time, the required value of the output quantity is uniquely determined.

IN self-tuning systems The memory is looking for such a value of the controlled variable, which in some sense is optimal.

So in extreme systems(Fig. 12) it is required that the output value always takes an extreme value from all possible ones, which is not predetermined and can change unpredictably. To find it, the system performs small trial movements and analyzes the response of the output value to these trials. After that, a control action is generated that brings the output value closer to the extreme value. The process is repeated continuously. Since the ACS data continuously evaluates the output parameter, they are performed only in accordance with the third control principle: the feedback principle.

Optimal Systems are a more complex version of extremal systems. Here, as a rule, complex processing of information about the nature of the change in output values and disturbances, about the nature of the influence of control actions on output values takes place, theoretical information, information of a heuristic nature, etc. can be involved. Therefore, the main difference between extreme systems is the presence of computers. These systems can operate according to any of the three fundamental principles of control.

IN adaptive systems the possibility of automatic reconfiguration of parameters or changes in the ACS circuit diagram in order to adapt to changing external conditions is provided. Accordingly, there are self-tuning And self-organizing adaptive systems.

All types of ACS ensure that the output value matches the required value. The only difference is in the program for changing the required value. Therefore, the foundations of TAU are built on the analysis of the simplest systems: stabilization systems. Having learned to analyze the dynamic properties of ACS, we will take into account all the features of more complex types of ACS.

Static characteristics

The ACS operating mode, in which the controlled variable and all intermediate values do not change in time, is called established, or static mode. Any link and ACS as a whole in this mode is described equations of statics kind y = F(u,f) in which there is no time t. The corresponding graphs are called static characteristics. The static characteristic of a link with one input u can be represented by a curve y = F(u)(Fig. 13). If the link has a second perturbation input f, then the static characteristic is given by the family of curves y = F(u) at different values f, or y = F(f) at various u.

So an example of one of the functional links of the water control system in the tank (see above) is a conventional lever (Fig. 14). The equation of statics for it has the form y = Ku. It can be represented as a link whose function is to amplify (or attenuate) the input signal in K once. Coefficient K = y/u, equal to the ratio of the output value to the input is called gain link. When the input and output quantities are of a different nature, it is called transmission ratio.

The static characteristic of this link has the form of a straight line segment with a slope a = arctg(L 2 /L 1) = arctg(K)(fig.15). Links with linear static characteristics are called linear. The static characteristics of real links are, as a rule, non-linear. Such links are called non-linear. They are characterized by the dependence of the transmission coefficient on the magnitude of the input signal: K = y/ u const.

For example, the static characteristic of a saturated DC generator is shown in Fig. 16. Usually, a non-linear characteristic cannot be expressed by any mathematical relationship and it has to be specified in a table or graph.

Knowing the static characteristics of individual links, it is possible to construct a static characteristic of the ACS (Fig. 17, 18). If all links of the ACS are linear, then the ACS has a linear static characteristic and is called linear. If at least one link is non-linear, then ACS nonlinear.

Links for which it is possible to set a static characteristic in the form of a rigid functional dependence of the output value on the input are called static. If there is no such connection and each value of the input value corresponds to a set of values of the output value, then such a link is called astatic. Depicting its static characteristics is meaningless. An example of an astatic link is a motor, the input value of which is the voltage U, and the output - the angle of rotation of the shaft, the value of which at U = const can take any value. The output value of the astatic link, even in steady state, is a function of time.

Questions

List and give a brief description of the main types of ACS?
What is called the static mode of the ACS?
What is called the static characteristics of ACS?
What is called the equation of statics of ACS?
What is called the transfer coefficient, what is the difference from the gain?
What is the difference between non-linear links and linear ones?
How to build a static characteristic of several links?
What is the difference between astatic links and static ones?
What is the difference between astatic regulation and static regulation?
How to make static ATS astatic?
What is called the static error of the regulator, how to reduce it?
What is SAR statism?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of static and astatic regulation?

3.1. Dynamic mode of ACS.
Equation of dynamics

The steady state is not typical for ACS. Usually, the controlled process is affected by various perturbations that deviate the controlled parameter from a given value. The process of establishing the desired value of the controlled variable is called regulation. Due to the inertia of the links, regulation cannot be carried out instantly.

Let us consider an automatic control system, which is in a steady state, characterized by the value of the output quantity y=yo. Let at the moment t = 0 any disturbing factor acted on the object, deviating the value of the controlled variable. After some time, the regulator will return the ACS to its original state (taking into account the static accuracy) (Fig. 24). If the regulated value changes in time according to an aperiodic law, then the regulation process is called aperiodic.

With sharp disturbances, it is possible oscillatory damped process (Fig. 25a). There is also such a possibility that after some time T p undamped oscillations of the regulated value will be established in the system - undamped oscillatory process (Fig. 25b). The last view - divergent oscillatory process (Fig. 25c).

Thus, the main mode of operation of the ACS is considered dynamic mode, characterized by the flow in it transients. That's why the second main task in the development of ACS is the analysis of the dynamic modes of operation of ACS.

The behavior of the ACS or any of its links in dynamic modes is described dynamics equation y(t) = F(u,f,t), which describes the change in values over time. As a rule, this is a differential equation or a system of differential equations. That's why the main method for studying ACS in dynamic modes is the method of solving differential equations. The order of differential equations can be quite high, that is, both the input and output quantities themselves are dependent on the dependence u(t), f(t), y(t), and the rate of their change, acceleration, etc. Therefore, the equation of dynamics in general form can be written as follows:

F(y, y', y”,..., y (n) , u, u', u”,..., u (m) , f, f ', f ”,..., f ( k)) = 0.

Transmission function

In TAU, the operator form of writing differential equations is often used. In this case, the concept of a differential operator is introduced p = d/dt So, dy/dt = py, A p n = d n /dt n. This is just another notation for the operation of differentiation. The integration operation inverse to differentiation is written as 1/p. In operator form, the original differential equation is written as an algebraic one:

a o p (n) y + a 1 p (n-1) y + ... + a n y = (a o p (n) + a 1 p (n-1) + ... + a n)y = (b o p (m) + b 1 p (m-1) + ... + bm)u

This form of notation should not be confused with operational calculus, if only because time functions are directly used here y(t), u(t) (originals), not their Images Y(p), U(p) obtained from the originals using the Laplace transform formula. At the same time, under zero initial conditions, up to notation, the entries are indeed very similar. This similarity lies in the nature of differential equations. Therefore, some rules of operational calculus are applicable to the operator form of the equation of dynamics. So operator p can be considered as a factor without the right to permutation, that is py yp. It can be taken out of brackets, etc.

Therefore, the equation of dynamics can also be written in the form:

Differential operator W(p) called transfer function. It determines the ratio of the output value of the link to the input at each moment of time: W(p) = y(t)/u(t), which is why it is also called dynamic gain. in steady state d/dt = 0, that is p = 0, so the transfer function turns into the link transfer coefficient K = b m / a n.

Transfer function denominator D(p) = a o p n + a 1 p n - 1 + a 2 p n - 2 + ... + a n called characteristic polynomial. Its roots, i.e. the values of p for which the denominator D(p) goes to zero and W(p) tends to infinity is called transfer function poles.

Numerator K(p) = b o p m + b 1 p m - 1 + ... + b m called operator gain. Its roots, which K(p) = 0 And W(p) = 0, are called transfer function zeros.

An ACS link with a known transfer function is called dynamic link. It is represented by a rectangle, inside which the expression of the transfer function is written. That is, this is an ordinary functional link, the function of which is given by the mathematical dependence of the output value on the input value in dynamic mode. For a link with two inputs and one output, two transfer functions must be written for each of the inputs. The transfer function is the main characteristic of the link in dynamic mode, from which all other characteristics can be obtained. It is determined only by the system parameters and does not depend on the input and output values. For example, one of the dynamic links is the integrator. Its transfer function W and (p) = 1/p. The ACS scheme, composed of dynamic links, is called structural.

Questions

What ACS mode is called dynamic?
What is called regulation?
Name the possible types of transient processes in the ACS. Which of them are acceptable for the normal operation of the ACS?
What is called the equation of dynamics? What is its appearance?
How to conduct a theoretical study of the dynamics of ACS?
What is called linearization?
What is the geometric meaning of linearization?
What is the mathematical justification for linearization?
Why is the equation of ACS dynamics called the equation in deviations?
Is the principle of superposition valid for the ACS dynamics equation? Why?
How can a link with two or more inputs be represented by a circuit consisting of links with one input?
Write down the linearized dynamics equation in the usual and operator forms?
What is the meaning and what properties does the differential operator p have?
What is the transfer function of a link?
Write a linearized dynamics equation using a transfer function. Is this entry valid for nonzero initial conditions? Why?
Write an expression for the link transfer function according to the known linearized dynamics equation: (0.1p + 1)py(t) = 100u(t).
What is the dynamic gain of a link?
What is the characteristic polynomial of a link?
What are the zeros and poles of a transfer function?
What is a dynamic link?
What is called the structural diagram of the ACS?
What is called elementary and typical dynamic links?
How can a complex transfer function be decomposed into transfer functions of typical links?

4.1. Equivalent transformations of block diagrams

The block diagram of the ACS in the simplest case is built from elementary dynamic links. But several elementary links can be replaced by one link with a complex transfer function. For this, there are rules for the equivalent transformation of block diagrams. Let's consider possible ways of transformations.

1. serial connection(Fig. 28) - the output value of the previous link is fed to the input of the next one. In this case, you can write:

y 1 = W 1 y o ; y 2 \u003d W 2 y 1; ...; y n = W n y n - 1 =>

y n \u003d W 1 W 2 ..... W n .y o \u003d W eq y o,

Where .

That is, a chain of serially connected links is converted into an equivalent link with a transfer function equal to the product of the transfer functions of individual links.

2. Parallel - consonant compound(Fig. 29) - the same signal is applied to the input of each link, and the output signals are added. Then:

y \u003d y 1 + y 2 + ... + y n \u003d (W 1 + W 2 + ... + W3) y o \u003d W eq y o,

Where .

That is, a chain of links connected in parallel - according to, is converted into a link with a transfer function equal to the sum of the transfer functions of individual links.

3. Parallel - back connection(Fig. 30a) - the link is covered by positive or negative feedback. The section of the circuit along which the signal goes in the opposite direction with respect to the system as a whole (that is, from output to input) is called feedback loop with transfer function W os. In this case, for a negative OS:

y = W p u; y 1 = W os y; u = y o - y 1 ,

hence

y = W p y o - W p y 1 = W p y o - W p W oc y = >

y(1 + W p W oc) = W p y o = > y = W eq y o ,

Where .

Similarly: - for positive OS.

If Woc = 1, then the feedback is called unit (Fig. 30b), then W equiv \u003d W p / (1 ± W p).

A closed system is called single-loop, if when it is opened at any point, a chain of series-connected elements is obtained (Fig. 31a). The section of the chain, consisting of links connected in series, connecting the point of application of the input signal with the point of removal of the output signal is called straight circuit (Fig. 31b, transfer function of the direct circuit W p \u003d Wo W 1 W 2). A chain of series-connected links included in a closed circuit is called open circuit(Fig. 46c, open circuit transfer function W p = W 1 W 2 W 3 W 4). Based on the above methods of equivalent transformation of block diagrams, a single-loop system can be represented by one link with a transfer function: W equiv \u003d W p / (1 ± W p)- the transfer function of a single-circuit closed system with negative feedback is equal to the transfer function of the forward circuit divided by one plus the transfer function of the open circuit. For a positive OS, the denominator has a minus sign. If you change the point of removal of the output signal, then the form of the direct circuit changes. So, if we consider the output signal y 1 at the link output W 1, That W p = Wo W 1. The expression for the open circuit transfer function is independent of the point at which the output signal is taken.

Closed systems are single-loop And multiloop(Fig. 32). To find the equivalent transfer function for a given circuit, you must first transform individual sections.

If a multi-loop system has cross links(Fig. 33), then additional rules are needed to calculate the equivalent transfer function:

4. When transferring the adder through the link along the signal path, it is necessary to add a link with the transfer function of the link through which the adder is transferred. If the adder is transferred against the signal path, then a link with a transfer function is added, the inverse transfer function of the link through which we transfer the adder (Fig. 34).

So, the signal is taken from the output of the system in Fig. 34a

y 2 = (f + y o W 1)W 2 .

The same signal should be taken from the outputs of the systems in Fig. 34b:

y 2 \u003d fW 2 + y o W 1 W 2 \u003d (f + y o W 1)W 2,

and in Fig.34c:

y 2 = (f(1/W 1) + y o)W 1 W 2 = (f + y o W 1)W 2 .

With such transformations, nonequivalent sections of the communication line may appear (they are shaded in the figures).

5. When transferring a node through a link along the signal path, a link is added with a transfer function, the inverse transfer function of the link through which we transfer the node. If the node is transferred against the signal path, then a link is added with the transfer function of the link through which the node is transferred (Fig. 35). So, the signal is taken from the output of the system in Fig. 35a

y 1 = y o W 1 .

The same signal is taken from the outputs of Fig. 35b:

y 1 \u003d y o W 1 W 2 / W 2 \u003d y o W 1

y 1 = y o W 1 .

6. Mutual permutations of nodes and adders are possible: nodes can be interchanged (Fig. 36a); adders can also be interchanged (Fig. 36b); when transferring the node through the adder, it is necessary to add a comparing element (Fig. 36c: y \u003d y 1 + f 1 \u003d\u003e y 1 \u003d y - f 1) or adder (Fig. 36d: y = y1 + f1).

In all cases of transfer of elements of the block diagram, there are non-equivalent regions communication lines, so you need to be careful in places where the output signal is picked up.

With equivalent transformations of the same block diagram, different transfer functions of the system can be obtained for different inputs and outputs. So in Fig. 48 there are two inputs: by control action u and outrage f with one exit y. Such a circuit can be converted to one link with two transfer functions Wuy And W fy .

Questions

List typical schemes for connecting ACS links?
How to convert a chain of serially connected links to a single link?
How to convert a chain of parallel connected links to a single link?
How to convert feedback to one link?
What is called a direct chain of ACS?
What is an open circuit ACS?
How to transfer the adder through the link in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to move the node through the link along and against the signal movement?
How to transfer a node through a node in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to transfer the adder through the adder in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to transfer the node through the adder and the adder through the node along and against the signal movement?
What is called non-equivalent sections of communication lines in block diagrams?
What is the purpose of the DC generator voltage ATS?

Differentiator link

There are ideal and real differentiating links. Dynamic equation of an ideal link: y(t) = , or y=kpu. Here, the output quantity is proportional to the rate of change of the input quantity. Transmission function: W(p) = kp. At k = 1 the link performs a pure differentiation W(p) = p. Transient response: h(t) = k 1’(t) = d(t).

It is impossible to implement an ideal differentiating link, since the magnitude of the surge in the output value when a single step action is applied to the input is always limited. In practice, real differentiating links are used that perform approximate differentiation of the input signal.

His equation: Tpy + y = kTpu.

Transmission function: W(p) =.

At small T the link can be considered as an ideal differentiating one. The transient response can be derived using the Heaviside formula:

Here p 1 = - 1/T- root of the characteristic equation D(p) = Tp + 1 = 0; Besides, D'(p 1) = T.

When a single step action is applied to the input, the output value is limited in magnitude and stretched in time (Fig. 47). According to the transient response, which has the form of an exponential, it is possible to determine the transfer coefficient k and time constant T. Examples of such links can be a four-terminal network of resistance and capacitance or resistance and inductance, a damper, etc. Differentiating links are the main tool used to improve the dynamic properties of ACS.

In addition to those considered, there are a number of links, which we will not dwell on in detail. These include the ideal forcing link ( W(p) = Tp + 1, practically unrealizable), the real forcing link (W(p) =, at T1 >> T2), retarded link ( W(p) = e - pT), which reproduces the input action with a delay in time, and others.

Questions

What is called and what do you know about typical input actions? What are they needed for?
What is a transition characteristic?
What is an impulse response?
What is called temporal characteristics?
What is the Heaviside formula for?
How to get a transient curve with a complex form of input action, if the transient response of the link is known?
What is called an inertialess link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an integrating link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an aperiodic link, its dynamics equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an oscillatory link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?

LACH: L() = 20lgk.

Some frequency responses are shown in Fig.50. The link passes all frequencies equally with an increase in amplitude by k times and without phase shift.

Integrating link

Transmission function:

Consider the special case when k = 1, i.e.

AFC: W(j) = .

VCH: P() = 0.

Since the emergence of the first civilizations of Mesopotamia, Ancient China, Egypt, the basic principles of management have been characterized by a despotic form of leadership by subordinates. Thus, the system of state enforcement served as a necessary mechanism for the maintenance of irrigation systems. Which allowed harvesting almost all year round, regardless of the favorable weather conditions. Which ultimately contributed to the prosperity of the country and all its citizens.

The ancient Greeks were among the very first to exalt management as a special art. In turn, the administrative structure of the Roman Empire is the apotheosis of the administrative thought of that time, along with the complex structure of the bureaucracy and the decision-making procedure.

In parallel with the formation of new types of statehood and modes of production, management was constantly subjected to structural changes, but only at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. took shape as a separate science, functioning according to certain principles.

Classification of modern management principles!

The modern concept of management was developed by Frederic Taylor and Henri Fayol at the beginning of the last century. First, betrayed the management of scientific justification. The second, brought out the basic principles of company management at the highest level.

In subsequent decades, management theory was supplemented by the works of J. Mooney, A. Reilly and L. Gyulik. Their attention was focused on the fundamental elements of management - planning, organization, motivation, control.

Ultimately, this made it possible to classify the principles of management in three areas:

Universal principles for building an organization
Principles describing the functional component of management
Rules that include a symbiosis of commercial management and government regulation.

Putting into practice the basic principles of management!

Principle 1: Planning!

In anticipation of the implementation of a new project, planning automatically becomes a top priority on the agenda of the company's management and related management bodies: financial, marketing and technical departments.

During planning, the management structures of the organization are engaged in setting strategic, medium-term and daily goals. The company's management takes into account the statistical indicators of the priority market segment, financial opportunities and available resources, innovative developments, as well as mechanisms for promoting and marketing products.
Together, all these factors, taking into account the competitive environment, contribute to the formulation of a development strategy by an enterprise, without which it is impossible to pursue a targeted policy.

Principle 2: Leadership!

The work of the organization is impossible without a clear hierarchy of governing bodies. Managers are required to act as a link between workers, knowledge departments and consumers, whose main goal is to achieve the company's goals.

In full, the functions of leaders are reduced to the following characteristics:

Timely decision-making in relation to subordinates.
Search and application of mechanisms to meet the needs of owners, consumers, suppliers, as well as other entities involved in the company's activities.
Combination of centralized and decentralized management, the method of ensuring freedom of action, but with regulated rules of accountability.
Employee motivation.
Training of personnel with the right to improve qualifications.
Managing relationships within the team.
Setting goals and objectives of the company with their subsequent implementation.

Principle 3: Focus on the consumer!

The basic principles of management, one way or another, are focused on the successful functioning of the organization. However, only consumers have a direct influence on the company, which must consistently cater to the current and anticipate future needs of customers.

In this direction, the following work needs to be done:

Analyze consumer preferences - quality, packaging and price of goods.
Respond to changes in customer satisfaction.
Practice feedback.
Meet the needs of society in relation to the services provided.

Principle 4: Engage and motivate employees!

Of course, the team of a commercial organization is an organism that needs to be managed and additionally stimulated in order to use the knowledge, skills and experience of each of its members for the benefit.

When involving employees, it is necessary to initiate the transfer of responsibility for solving everyday tasks to them. Thus, this will allow the staff to actively improve, take the initiative, be proud of their own work and, in the end, have fun. Thus, the subordinates will show a desire for professional growth for the sake of the development of the company.

Principle 5: an integrated approach to the management of the organization!

An integrated approach to management considers management as a system of complementary processes. This allows you to structure the management in fragments for effective decision making under certain circumstances. It also provides awareness of the interdependence of a particular management decision and contributes to the continuous improvement of the company's management.

First of all, an integrated approach is necessary for operational regulation that can explain the causes of the problem and resolve them in a timely manner.

Principle 6: Improvement is a must!

A successful organization cannot hold a position or claim leadership in a particular market segment without a formulated improvement strategy. And this applies both to the goods and services produced, and to each person involved in the company.

The administrative apparatus needs to be improved in order to find new, more effective ways of managing.
Staff - to gain experience, improve skills.
The technical department is to practice innovation in order to bring the production process to a qualitatively new level.
Goods and services - meet the variables of consumer demand.

Principle 7: Rational Decision Making!

As well as the basic principles of management, managerial decision-making must be rationally justified and appropriate to the situation.

In order for the manager to be able to apply this principle, it is necessary:

Collect and verify information related to the problem posed.
Analyze the potential impact of a particular management method.
Making a decision based on the analysis performed, adjusted for experience.

Principle 8: Control!

Control within the framework of the organization's management is carried out in a continuous and final form.

Monitoring the implementation of the project provides an opportunity to make adjustments depending on the influence of unforeseen factors, as well as the timing of the implementation of the goals.

The final control is provided to evaluate the work done in a specific time period. It allows you to compare the planned goals and objectives of the enterprise to immediate results. Which, in turn, will be taken into account when making changes to the organization's development strategy.

Conclusion

The basic principles of management in the theoretical plane act as universal rules for managing an enterprise, providing algorithms for resolving planned and unforeseen tasks for lower, middle and top managers. And the practical component of the principles of management is rational decision-making and ensuring the most efficient production process.