Something isn’t working again, apparently I haven’t fully recovered from a sore throat yet. In this case, let’s continue the medical-historical narratives. Today we will continue the topic of medicine of the Middle Ages, only we will move from Western Europe to Eastern Europe, to Rus' (first Kyiv, and then consisting of various principalities).

There are three main directions in which Russian medicine developed: pagan folk, monastic and secular. By comparing their development and degree of influence, we can explain the popularity of Ge Malakhovs, newspapers such as healthy lifestyle and other folk alternative sources and methods.

"Tell me, magician, favorite of the gods..."

Pagan medicine developed for a long time and was an integral part of pagan culture.

This is what N.P. Zagoskin, a professor at Kazan University, historian and publicist, wrote in his book “Doctors and Medicine in Ancient Russia” in 1891:
“Russian folk medicine is as old as the historical life of the Russian people; its roots go deep into the prehistoric, pagan times of the life of our people. It then survived the thousand-year period of its historical life - and has retained its enormous power to this day , existing alongside scientific medicine and even sometimes entering into battle with it.”

Sound familiar? It was written more than a hundred years ago, but it is still relevant.

And here is another explanation from Professor Zagoskin:
“There was no medical care available to the masses in our fatherland until the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the closely related emergence of zemstvo medicine.”

Zemstvo reform, if I'm not mistaken, dates back to 1864. The first pharmacy in Rus' appeared only in 1581 in the Kremlin. Now think about how many centuries our people were treated by magicians, witches, sorcerers and bonesetters with herbs, spells and water.

Pagan healers were popularly considered intermediaries between the human world and the mysterious forces of nature, who could turn these forces both to the benefit of a person and to harm. At the same time, the sorcerers worked simultaneously in several directions - here were public magical actions, medicinal witchcraft, and fortune telling about personal fate. Both ordinary people and princes of the main caliber turned to them for help; just remember “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg.”

Later, assorted magicians began to be called lechtsami(brrr, barely managed to pronounce it). This is exactly what they were called in the “Brief Russian Truth” - the oldest code of Russian laws that has reached us (the first quarter of the 11th century, the reign of Yaroslav the Wise). The most interesting thing is that “Russkaya Pravda” legalized the remuneration of doctors.

A person who was wounded by someone had the right to demand 3 hryvnia from the offender and, in addition, a special reward for the one who would treat this wound ( "for an offense 3 hryvnia, but let's pay a bribe"). In later editions this reward was called "therapeutic".

Lech residents passed on knowledge exclusively from father to son; strangers were not allowed into the secrets of the profession.

Herbs, pebbles, narzan

Lech residents widely used various products of plant, animal and mineral origin.

The most popular of the plants were: wormwood, nettle, plantain, wild rosemary, linden blossom, birch leaves, ash bark, juniper berries, onions, garlic, horseradish, birch sap, etc.

Among animal products, honey, mare's milk, cod liver and deer antlers occupied a special place.

Minerals were also in use; for example, chrysolite, ground into powder, was given for abdominal pain. For obstetrics, women wore a necklace made of yakhont. Vinegar, copper sulfate, turpentine, saltpeter, "sulfur stone", arsenic, antimony, mercury - all this was used for therapeutic purposes.

Do you know Narzan? I love it more than other mineral waters (except for the purely Chita-based Molokovka and Kuku, but you can’t buy them in Moscow time). Meanwhile, even the ancient Russians knew “sour water” and used it to treat problems with the gastrointestinal tract. There is an opinion that the “living water” from fairy tales is just Narzan. Translated, as they suggested to me here, from Kabardian, narzan means “hero-water.” This word migrated into Old Russian and has safely survived to this day.

Many recipes of ancient Russian medicine have come down to us in the form of more than 200 collections - herbalists and medical books. They were written down, however, later - with the spread of Christianity and literacy throughout Rus'.

There were really effective recipes in medical books, which were absorbed by scientific medicine. There was also outright nonsense, based on beliefs and myths. Here, for example, is one recipe for the treatment of alcoholism. Nobody wants to try it for themselves? ;)

I'll go to the monastery

With the development of Christianity in Rus', monastic medicine, and, along with it, monastery hospitals. The first such health care facilities appeared in Kyiv and Pereyaslavl. The Nikon Chronicle records that in 1091, Metropolitan Ephraim erected a “bath building” in Pereyaslavl, established hospitals and assigned them doctors, which served “free healing to everyone who came.” Later, hospitals appeared in Novgorod, Smolensk and Lvov.

The most popular was the Central Clinical Hospital at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Suffering people flocked from all over Rus', and many found healing there. For seriously ill people, the monastery had special rooms where monks were constantly on duty, caring for the sick.

The monks considered healing to be a matter of their ascetic duty and treated the accumulation of knowledge and experience with zeal. Several such doctors became known from chronicles. One of the first was the “wonderful healer Anthony,” who previously practiced in the Athos monastery. It is known that he himself prepared the “potions” with which he treated his patients.

The second is the Monk Alimpius, who prepared his own recipe for an ointment for lepers, whom the “magi and infidels” could not help.

The third, especially glorious healer of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, was the Monk Agapit, the best student of the already mentioned Anthony. He mainly became popular after he cured the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich of Chernigov (better known as Vladimir Monomakh). After this incident, Agapit's popularity increased incredibly.

The “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” (its oldest list dates back to the 15th century) essentially contained information about medical ethics of the 11th-12th centuries: a doctor should be an example of philanthropy, even to the point of self-sacrifice; for the sake of the patient, perform the most menial tasks; be tolerant and cordial towards him; do everything in his power to cure the patient and not worry about personal enrichment and professional vanity.

The church persecuted witches and other pagan healers; their actions were regarded as a crime, a conspiracy with the devil. They could have been burned at the stake following the example of their Western European colleagues. Thus, in one of the most advanced principalities - the Novgorod Republic - in 1227 four wise men were burned. True, such social protection measures were rarely resorted to, only in particularly advanced cases.

Paid treatments

However, the church was unable to monopolize healing. Already under Yaroslav the Wise, free masons, doctors and private medical practice existed in Rus', that is, secular medicine. In contrast to the “free” monastic medicine, private medicine was “compensated”, that is, paid. In cities, secular doctors, both domestic and foreign, served at the courts of princes and boyars.

The same “Paterikon” mentions an unnamed Armenian healer who practiced in the 11th-12th centuries. in Kyiv. The following is written about him: “he is extremely cunning in healing, as if he had never been one before.” This doctor knew how to determine diseases by the pulse and appearance of the patient, his practice was very successful, princes Vsevolod and Vladimir (who is Monomakh) used his services.

Secular doctors strongly emphasized their isolation from pagan witchcraft and monastic medicine, although they used the best achievements and experience of both the former and the latter.

Citizens cutters

There were also surgeons in Ancient Rus'. They were called "cutters". Mentions of surgical operations are preserved, for example, in “Izborniki”, a kind of digests on philosophical and religious topics. The cutters knew how to “cut tissue,” “scrub” (amputate) limbs and other diseased or dead parts of the body, and perform therapeutic cauterizations using a hot iron (cauterization). Knives for cutting and sharpening (not to be confused with tachils;)) medical ones are described. At the same time, the cutters also knew therapeutic techniques, knew herbs, ointments, etc. That is, there was still no clear division into therapists and surgeons.

Naturally, military field surgery was also developed, where would we be without it in times of constant local and global conflicts. For dressing wounds, dried mushroom mycelium or “tree moss” was used, for example. The wounds were washed with healing liquids, sprinkled and fumigated with smoke. Deep wounds (“fistila”) were douched.

Suturing was also practiced; there were special needles and threads for this. The chronicles contain mentions of splints for transport immobilization of the wounded and broken, as well as various prostheses for amputees. The prostheses were wooden, with metal reinforcement.

Get off!

But according to the level of development of sanitary affairs in the X-XIV centuries. Ancient Rus' gave a hundred points head start to Western Europe. This is evidenced, first of all, by the archaeological excavations of Ancient Novgorod, which began in 1932 and largely shaped our ideas about the medieval Russian city.

The streets in the 10th century city were covered with multi-tiered (up to 30 layers) wooden flooring, and clay and wooden water conduits and water collectors were laid throughout the city. For comparison, in medieval Germany, pavements appeared in the 14th century, and water pipes - in the 15th century. In addition, during the excavations of Novgorod, many sanitary and hygienic items were found.

Well, you already know everything about Russian baths. Indeed, in addition to its main function - muscle mass, it could help with many diseases. In addition, the bathhouse was the cleanest room in the estate; childbirth was delivered there, newborns were treated, dislocations were set, bloodletting was performed, massage sessions were performed, and medicinal ointments were rubbed in for diseases of the skin and joints. The first description of a steam bath dates back to the 11th century.

Plague on both your houses

Baths and water pipes are, of course, great. But the British have not yet released cholera from India, and no sewage system can save you from airborne diseases. Therefore, pestilence appeared in Rus' with enviable regularity. From the 11th to the 18th centuries, chronicles mention more than 50 epidemics. They usually started from border cities (Smolensk, Novgorod), and then spread along trade routes inland. Mortality during the pestilence was not much different from that in Europe: for example, during the epidemic of 1230, 32 thousand inhabitants died in Smolensk.

The population's attitude towards epidemics was twofold. On the one hand, the “obscure place” was locked down, that is, outposts were set up on the roads, and fences were set up in the forests. On the other hand, until the 15th century, those who died during the epidemic were buried according to religious rituals in cemeteries near churches, in the presence of crowds of people, which only contributed to the spread of disease. In addition, the cause of the pestilence was considered to be the wrath of God, the location of the stars, and changes in the weather. And the main method of stopping the epidemic was considered to be mass prayers, which often went to extremes. Thus, in Novgorod in the 14th century, the townspeople built the Church of St. Andrew Stratelates in 24 hours, which has survived to this day.

Igo-go

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a severe blow to many aspects of life in Rus', including medicine. Secular medicine faded away, many monasteries were destroyed and burned. However, those who were carried away became centers of national medicine. One of the leading ones at that time was the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, founded in 1397 and not subject to raids. Within the walls of the monastery at the beginning of the 15th century, monk Kirill Belozersky translated from Greek “Galinovo on Hippocrates” - Galen’s comments to the “Hippocratic Collection”. There were several hospitals at the monastery, one of them was restored and is protected by the state as an architectural monument.

The revival of culture and medicine began only after the liquidation of the yoke (for North-Eastern Rus' - this is the year 1480).

Drawings:

1. Helping the sick and infirm in the monastery. Miniature from a 16th century manuscript.
2. Page from the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon
3. Large hospital wards of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery

Literature:

1. Bagrinovsky G.Yu. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Spirits. - M.: Astrel, 2003
2. Bogoyavlensky N.A. Old Russian healing in the X-XVIII centuries. - M.: Medicine, 1960
3. Brockhaus F.A., Efron I.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary (electronic version)
4. Zagoskin N.P. Doctors and medical practice in Ancient Russia. - Kazan, 1891 (reprint)
5. Rybakov B.A. Paganism of Ancient Rus'. - M.: Science, 1988
6. Sorokina T.S. History of Medicine - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M: PAIMS, 1994.

MEDICINE IN MEDIEVAL Rus'. MEDICINE IN THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE (IX-XIV centuries) Kievan Rus, caliphates

Healing existed in 3 forms: 1 - folk healing (witchcraft and witchcraft), 2 - monastic medicine (developed after the adoption of Christianity) and 3 - secular medicine.

Ethnoscience. It has been developing for a long time and was an integral part of pagan culture. Until the 19th century, it was the only available means of maintaining health. It united real knowledge of the healing powers of nature and faith in miraculous secrets. Healing was carried out by the pagan priestly class (sorcerers, witches, etc.) The scope of their activities included: public magical actions, witchcraft, fortune telling, etc. Later, folk healers were called healers. They are spoken of in “Russian Truth” - the oldest code of Russian laws that has reached us, which was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise. “Russkaya Pravda” legally established the wages of healers: according to the laws of that time, a person who caused damage to the health of another person had to pay a fine to the state treasury and give the victim money to pay for treatment. The healers passed on their healing knowledge and secrets from generation to generation. Medicines made from plants were very popular. Among medicines of animal origin, honey, raw cod liver, mare's milk and deer antlers occupied a special place.

Mineral products were used. To facilitate childbirth, women wore jewelry made of yakhont. The healing properties of vinegar and copper sulfate, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. The Russian people have long known about the healing properties of “sour water.” Subsequently, the experience of traditional medicine was summarized in numerous herbalists and medical books. A little more than 250 ancient Russian herbalists and healers have survived to this day.

Monastic medicine began to develop after the adoption of Christianity. Illness was perceived as punishment or the possession of demons, and recovery was spiritual forgiveness. The monastery hospital of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, the first Russian monastery, was widely known. From all over Rus', the wounded and sick with various ailments went to the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and many found healing there. For the seriously ill, the monastery had special rooms (hospitals), where monks were on duty, caring for the sick. Among them, the most famous are Anthony, Alimpius, who healed lepers, and Agapit. Agapit treated the inhabitants of the monastery for free, prepared medicines himself and cared for the sick, healed Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich (sent him a potion) Thus, the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” contains the first specific information about medical ethics in ancient Rus': the healer should be an example of philanthropy up to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient, perform even the most menial tasks, be tolerant, etc.

Some ancient Russian monastic hospitals were also centers of education: they taught medicine and collected Greek and Byzantine manuscripts

One of the most popular books of the 11th century. was “Izbornik.” Its goal was to connect social relations in Rus' with the norms of Christian morality.

The Izbornik talks about cutters (surgeons) who knew how to “cut tissue,” amputate limbs and other diseased or dead parts of the body, perform therapeutic cauterizations using a hot iron, and treat the damaged area with herbs and ointments. Knives for dissection and medical sharpeners are described. At the same time, the Izbornik contains incurable ailments, against which the medicine of that time was powerless.

In ancient Russian literature of the 12th century. There is information about female healers, chiropractor grandmothers who skillfully performed massage, and about attracting women to care for the sick.

Secular medicine Princes and boyars were served by secular doctors, both Russian and foreign. Thus, at the court of Vladimir Monomakh, an Armenian physician served. He knew how to determine diseases by the pulse and appearance of the patient.

There was a stubborn struggle between different areas of healing.

Sanitation

In terms of development, sanitary science was ahead of the countries of Western Europe. On the territory of ancient Novgorod, multi-tiered (up to 30 floorings) wooden pavements created in the 10th-11th centuries, more than 2,100 buildings with hygienic items located in them, were discovered and studied, pottery and wooden catch basins and drainage systems were discovered - some of the oldest in Northern Europe An integral part of the medical and sanitary life of ancient Rus' was the Russian steam bath, which has long been considered a wonderful means of healing. The bathhouse was the cleanest room in the estate. That is why, along with its direct purpose, the bathhouse was also used as a place where they delivered babies, provided first care for a newborn, set dislocations and performed bloodletting, performed massages and “put pots on,” treated colds and joint diseases, and rubbed medicinal ointments for skin diseases.

Russian chronicles contain terrifying pictures of large epidemics of plague and other infectious diseases, which in Rus' were called “pestilence.” The population resorted to measures to limit contaminated areas - outposts were set up on the roads to cities overrun by diseases and fences were set up in the forests. However, the dead were buried in churches, which contributed to the spread of the infection. It was believed that the pestilence was caused by supernatural causes. The misunderstanding that the cause of disease was poverty and dirt intensified the epidemics.

Caliphates

Arabic-language culture and medicine

The translation activities of the Arabs played an invaluable role in preserving the heritage of those who preceded them. Civilizations.

In the field of disease theory, the Arabs adopted the ancient Greek teachings about the four elements and four bodily juices. According to the Arabs, each of the elements and liquids participates in the creation of four qualities: heat, cold, dryness and humidity, which determine the temperament of each person. It can be normal, if all components are balanced, or unbalanced. When the balance is disturbed, the doctor’s task is to restore the original state.

In the treatment of internal diseases, primary attention was paid to establishing the correct regimen and only then drugs were used.

Having borrowed from the Syrians the idea of ​​​​using alchemy in the field of medicine, the Arabs played an important role in the formation and development of pharmacy and the creation of the pharmacopoeia. Pharmacies began to open in cities for preparation and sale. Alchemists of the medieval Arabic-speaking East invented a water bath and alembic, used filtration, and obtained nitric and hydrochloric acids, bleach and alcohol. Al-Razi was an outstanding philosopher, physician and chemist of the early Middle Ages. Al-Razi compiled the first encyclopedic work on medicine in Arabic literature, “A Comprehensive Book of Medicine” in 25 volumes. Describing each disease, he analyzed it from the perspective of Greek, Syrian, Indian, Persian and Arab authors, after which he outlined his observations and conclusions. Another encyclopedic work by Al-Razi, “The Medical Book,” in 10 volumes, summarized the knowledge of that time in the field of medical theory, pathology, medicinal healing, dietetics, hygiene and cosmetics, surgery, toxicology and infectious diseases.

Among the numerous works of Al-Razi, the small treatise “On Smallpox and Measles” is of particular value. In it, Ar-Razi clearly formulated the idea of ​​​​the contagiousness of these diseases and described their differential diagnosis, treatment, nutrition of the patient, measures to protect against infection, and skin care for the sick.

Islamic traditions do not allow dissection of the human body, but have made significant contributions to the development of certain areas of anatomy and surgery. This was especially evident in ophthalmology. While studying the structure of the animal eye, the famous Egyptian astronomer and physician Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain the refraction of rays in the media of the eye and give names to its parts, and put forward the idea of ​​vision correction using biconvex lenses.

Ammar ibn Ali al-Mausili also belongs to the galaxy of remarkable Arab ophthalmologists. The operation he developed to remove cataracts by suctioning the lens using a hollow needle he invented was a great success and was called the “Ammara operation.”

Ali ibn Isa made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of eye diseases. He wrote the book “Memorandum for Ophthalmologists.” The first part of the book is devoted to a description of the eye and its structure, the second - to eye diseases that are felt by the senses, the third - to eye diseases that are invisible to the patient.

Treatment of eye diseases was the area of ​​medicine in which the influence of the Arab school was felt in Western Europe until the 17th century.

The outstanding achievements of the Arabs in the field of anatomy include the description of the pulmonary circulation.

Surgery in the medieval Arabic-speaking world was more of a craft because Islam prohibited autopsies of corpses.

Al-Zahrawi is considered the most outstanding surgeon of the medieval Arabic-speaking world. Al-Zahrawi operated brilliantly. His priorities include: the use of catgut in abdominal surgery and for subcutaneous sutures, suture with cast and two needles, the first use of the supine position in pelvic operations; he described what is today called tuberculous bone disease and introduced cataract surgery to Western eye surgery.

The organization of hospital business received significant development in the caliphates. Initially, the establishment of hospitals was a secular matter. Hospitals founded by Muslims were of three types.

The first type included hospitals established by caliphs or famous Muslim figures and designed for the general population. They were funded by the state and had a staff of doctors and service personnel. Libraries and medical schools were created at hospitals. The training was theoretical and practical: students accompanied the teacher during his rounds in the hospital and visited patients at home with him.

The second type of hospital was financed by famous doctors and religious figures and was small.

The third type of hospitals were military medical institutions. They moved with the army and were housed in tents, castles, and citadels. During military campaigns, along with male doctors, warriors were also accompanied by female doctors who cared for the wounded.

The high level of organization of medical practice in the medieval East is closely related to the development of hygiene and disease prevention. The ban on performing autopsies, on the one hand, limited research into the structure of the body and its functions, and on the other, directed the efforts of doctors to find other ways to preserve health and led to the development of rational hygienic measures. Many of them are enshrined in the Koran.

Medical education was carried out:

1 - self-education, 2 - training from your parents, doctors, 3 - training from famous doctors, 4 - training in medical schools.

1. Development of healing in Ancient Rus' (folk and monastic) (IX-XVI centuries) 2. Formation of secular (“court”) medicine in Russia (XVI-XVII centuries) 3. Reforms in the field of medical education at the end (XVII- beginning of the 18th century)

Issues 1. Correlation of the state of medicine in Rus' and in Western European countries (synchronously by period) 2. The problem of continuity of the healing traditions of Byzantium and medieval Rus': independence or tracing? 3. The question of the development of healing in the sociohistorical context and the role of the state in this 4. The problem of periodization (“the long Middle Ages”)

Three areas of healing in Ancient Rus': 1. Traditional medicine (since pagan times). 2. Monastic medicine (with the adoption of Christianity). 3. Secular (secular) medicine (formed parallel to monastic medicine, in the “world”).

CARRIERS OF FOLK HEALING ü Sorcerer ü Sorcerer ü Magician ü Witch Doctor ü Kalika wandering Doctor “vrati” - speak, speak

MONASTERY MEDICINE The first hospital in Rus' was built by Theodosius of PECHERSK in the mid-1070s. near Kiev. Pechersk Lavra.

A healer in Rus' was called MONASTERY HEALERS: In monasteries it was customary to provide assistance to the sick, and in some of them entire hospitals were established. ü Healer ü Healer ü Healer-cutter Monastery healers cared for the sick, monitored their nutrition and treated them with folk remedies that they knew, praying for the patients to God.

ANCIENT RUSSIAN HEALERS ANTONY (XI century) - the first to organize care for the sick in the monastery. ALYMPIUS (XI century) – AGAPITES (died in 1095) a free doctor, was famous for his treatment of the icon painter and Vladimir at the same time as Monomakh. healed lepers. The names of the healing monks are also known: Ephraim, Cyril, Damian and Pimen the Postnik.

Medical works of the XV-XVI centuries. “GALINOVO ON IPOCRATES” is a small translated treatise and commentary that briefly outlines the theories of medicine of ancient authors.

Medical works of the XV-XVI centuries. “ARISTOTLEAN GATE” or “THE SECRET OF THE SECRET” The ethical image of a doctor is outlined. The principles of building medical care in the state are expressed. Methods for examining the eyes, ear, palate, skin, chest, and limbs are outlined.

“VERTOCITY OF HEALTH” 1534. Prescriptions for the treatment of all diseases known at that time. Contained the chapters “Teachings”, “Discourses on the Pulse”, “On Fever”. Rules for “entering the ballnago”. Tips on how to behave healthy during pestilence.

The healers in Rus' were called SECULAR (“COURTY”) DOCTORS: Secular foreign healers are mentioned in chronicles dating back to the reign of Ivan III - two doctors “master of the Jews LEON and Nemchin ANTON” - unsuccessfully treated his children, for which they paid with their lives. Foreign doctors were attracted to Moscow by the complete absence of competitors and the generous rewards distributed by the Russian prince in case of success. The doctor is “wise”, “cunning”, “filozov”.

Elizeus BOMELIUS (Elisha Bomelius). At the end of the summer of 1570 he moved to Russia and quickly gained great influence on Ivan the Terrible, subsequently becoming his favorite. Officially he was listed as a court physician. He studied astrology and magic. In the chronicles he is mentioned as a “fierce sorcerer” and “evil heretic”, “mad Bomelius”. Sometimes he served as an executioner. Malyuta Skuratov himself was afraid of him. The boyars trembled, wondering who would be served the cup of poison at the royal feast. Ivan the Terrible ordered him to be roasted alive. After torture, he was thrown into prison, where he died.

Under Boris Godunov, doctors were invited from Europe, and there was a whole staff of five people at court. All of them were Germans, and since then Russian medicine has remained for a long time in the hands of immigrants from German states. They tried to prevent “strangers” from entering this fertile field. The services of doctors were expensive; having a learned foreign doctor with you was an unimaginable luxury. Only kings could afford this. Only courtiers close to the throne had the right to use the services of royal doctors. The only exceptions were the richest merchants, the Stroganovs, who hired a doctor who lived at their “distant factories.”

1. CONSTRUCTION OF PHARMACIES 1672 - the second pharmacy in Rus'. 1706 – Decree on the opening of free pharmacies. 1581 – the first Tsar’s pharmacy

2. CREATION OF THE STATE MEDICAL MANAGEMENT BODY 1620 - PHARMACY ORDER REORGANIZATION: 1716 - PHARMACEUTICAL OFFICE 1721 - MEDICAL OFFICE 1763 - MEDICAL COLLEGE 1803 - MINISTRY OF INTERIOR AFFAIRS

3. ORGANIZATION OF HOSPITALS AND HOSPITALS The first TEMPORARY MILITARY HOSPITAL was created on the territory of Troitsko. Sergius Lavra during the period of the Polish-Lithuanian intervention of 1611 -1612.

Fyodor Mikhailovich RTISHCHEV (1626 -1673) At his own expense he opened a number of hospitals, almshouses, and a school in St. Andrew's Monastery. 1650 - a shelter for the poor, sick, beggars and drunks. 1656 - Outpatient shelter.

1682 - HOSPITAL ALMS ("hospital houses") 1707 - the first MILITARY HOSPITAL 1670 - Order for the BUILDING OF ALMS 1712 - Decree on the construction of "SPITALET" for the most crippled 1715 - Decree on the compulsory construction of HOSPITAL

1715 - ORPHANANCE HOMES were created, in which women were supposed to serve as nurses. 1721 - a decree was issued “On the construction of hospitals in Moscow for the placement of illegitimate babies and on giving them and their nurses a monetary salary.” 1728 - The Medical College introduced staff positions for women to care for the sick. Since 1775, “ORDERS OF PUBLIC CHARITY” began to be created.

OFFICIAL NAMES OF DISEASES Increase in temperature - FEVER Heat and chills - FEVER Epilepsy - epilepsy Myocardial infarction - HEART RUPTURE Typhus - ROTTEN FEVER Hepatitis - BILE FEVER Stroke - APOPLEXIC STROKE and in case of death - CONDRESS Pulmonary tuberculosis - CONSUMPTION KA Scarlet fever – RUBELLA Diphtheria and croup – SWALLOWING Gangrene – ANTONOV FIRE Sore throat – TOAD Pectoris

TRAINING OF DOCTORS 1654 – the first SCHOOL OF RUSSIAN DOCTORS. In 1702, Nikolai Lambertovich Bidloo was invited to Russia, who became Peter I’s physician. In 1707, at the first military hospital in Moscow, he opened a HOSPITAL SCHOOL. He compiled a handwritten manual, “Instructions for students of surgery in the anatomical theater,” which the first Russian doctors used to study.

1727 - a MEDICAL-SURGICAL SCHOOL was established at the Great Marine and Land Hospital. 1754 – organization of midwifery schools (“woman’s business”). Since 1786, all hospital schools were transformed into MEDICAL-SURGICAL SCHOOLS.

INVITATION OF FOREIGN DOCTORS OF MEDICINE In 1668, at the invitation of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the German doctor Lavrenty BLUMENTROST came to Moscow and became his physician. The sons continued the work of their father: Lavrenty CHRISTIAN already in 1687 was recorded as “Doctor Lavrenty Lavrentiev Blumentrost, the younger.” His brothers, Ivan and the second Lavrentiy, became “envoys from Russia” to European universities. Ivan BLUMENTROST returned to Moscow in 1702 with the rank of doctor of medicine, becoming a regimental surgeon. in 1722 he became president of the Medical Chancellery. Lavrenty BLUMENTROST treated Peter I. In 1725 he was appointed president of the Academy of Sciences.

THE FIRST RUSSIAN DOCTORS OF MEDICINE who received their education abroad Yuri DROGOBYCHSKY He received his education in Poland (Krakow) and worked abroad for a long time. Francis Georgy SKORINA Educated in Poland (Krakow) and Padua. Ivan ALMANZENOV - studied medicine at Cambridge

Pyotr Vasilyevich POSNIKOV In 1692 he went to study abroad. In 1701 he returned with a diploma from the University of Padua with the title of Doctor of Philosophy and Medical Science.

PETERSBURG ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1724 Lomonosov considered medicine to be the most useful science for the human race, which through knowledge of the properties of the body. . . reaches the cause." He closely connected medicine with natural science, in particular with physics and chemistry.

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY On January 25, 1755, the university project was approved. Since 1758, it was planned to divide students into three faculties (philosophical, legal and medical). The Faculty of Medicine began its activities in 1764-1755.

MEDICAL-SURGICAL ACADEMY In 1798, the medical-surgical schools were reorganized into the Medical-Surgical Academy of 1798. Since 1881, the Moscow Art Academy began to be called the IMPERIAL MILITARY SURGICAL ACADEMY. physiologist I.M. SECHENOV, therapist S.P. BOTKIN, surgeon L.A. BEKKERS, ophthalmologist E.A. JUNGE, chemist A.P. BORODIN, psychiatrist I.N. BALINSKY and others.

Rus

MEDICINE IN MEDIEVAL Rus'. MEDICINE IN THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE (IX-XIV centuries) Kievan Rus, caliphates.

Development of healing

Healing existed in 3 forms: 1 - folk healing (witchcraft and witchcraft), 2 - monastic medicine (developed after the adoption of Christianity) and 3 - secular medicine.

Ethnoscience. It has been developing for a long time and was an integral part of pagan culture. Until the 19th century, it was the only available means of maintaining health. It united real knowledge of the healing powers of nature and faith in miraculous secrets. Healing was carried out by the pagan priestly class (sorcerers, witches, etc.) The scope of their activities included: public magical actions, witchcraft, fortune telling, etc. Later, folk healers were called healers. They are spoken of in the “Russian Truth” - the oldest code of Russian laws that has come down to us, which was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise. “Russian Truth” legally established the wages of healers: according to the laws of that time, a person who caused damage to the health of another person had to pay a fine to the state treasury and give the victim money to pay for treatment. The healers passed on their healing knowledge and secrets from generation to generation. Medicines made from plants were very popular. Among medicines of animal origin, honey, raw cod liver, mare's milk and deer antlers occupied a special place.

Products of mineral origin were used. To facilitate childbirth, women wore jewelry made of yakhont. The healing properties of vinegar and copper sulfate, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. The Russian people have long known about the healing properties of sour water. Subsequently, the experience of traditional medicine was summarized in numerous herbalists and medical books. A little more than 250 ancient Russian herbalists and healers have survived to this day.

Monastic medicine began to develop after the adoption of Christianity. Illness was perceived as punishment or the possession of demons, and recovery was spiritual forgiveness. The monastery hospital of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, the first Russian monastery, was widely known. From all over Rus', the wounded and sick with various ailments went to the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, and many found healing there. For the seriously ill, the monastery had special rooms (hospitals), where monks were on duty, caring for the sick. Among them, the most famous are Anthony, Alimpius, who healed lepers, and Agapit. Agapit treated the inhabitants of the monastery for free, prepared medicines himself and cared for the sick, healed Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich (sent him a potion) a man must be a model of philanthropy right down to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient, perform even the most menial tasks, be tolerant, etc.

Some ancient Russian monastic hospitals were also centers of education: they taught medicine and collected Greek and Byzantine manuscripts

One of the most popular books of the 11th century. was ʼʼIzbornikʼʼ. Its purpose was to connect social relations in Rus' with the norms of Christian morality.

The “Izbornik” talks about cutters (surgeons) who knew how to “cut tissue,” amputate limbs and other diseased or dead parts of the body, perform therapeutic cauterizations using a hot iron, and treat the damaged area with herbs and ointments. Knives for dissection and medical sharpeners are described. At the same time, the “Izbornik” lists incurable ailments, against which the medicine of that time was powerless.

In ancient Russian literature of the 12th century. There is information about female healers, chiropractor grandmothers who skillfully performed massage, and about attracting women to care for the sick.

Secular medicine The princes and boyars were served by secular doctors, both Russian and foreign. Thus, at the court of Vladimir Monomakh, an Armenian physician served. He knew how to determine diseases by the pulse and appearance of the patient.

There was a stubborn struggle between different areas of healing.

Sanitation

In terms of development, sanitary science was ahead of the countries of Western Europe. On the territory of ancient Novgorod, multi-tiered (up to 30 floorings) wooden pavements created in the 10th-11th centuries, more than 2100 buildings with hygienic items located in them, were discovered and studied, pottery and wooden catch basins and drainage systems were discovered - one of the oldest in Northern Europe. An integral part of the medical and sanitary life of ancient Rus' was the Russian steam bath, which has long been considered a wonderful means of healing. The bathhouse was the cleanest room in the estate. That is why, along with its direct purpose, the bathhouse was also used as a place where childbirth was delivered, first care was given to a newborn, dislocations were set and bloodletting was done, massages were performed and pots were applied, colds and joint diseases were treated, and medicinal ointments were rubbed for skin diseases.

Russian chronicles contain terrifying pictures of large epidemics of plague and other infectious diseases, which in Rus' were called “morom”. The population resorted to measures to limit contaminated areas - outposts were set up on the roads to cities captured by diseases and fences were set up in the forests. At the same time, the dead were buried in churches, which contributed to the spread of the infection. It was believed that the pestilence was caused by supernatural causes. The misunderstanding that the cause of disease was poverty and dirt intensified the epidemics.

Arabic-language culture and medicine

The translation activities of the Arabs played an invaluable role in preserving the heritage of those who preceded them. Civilizations.

In the field of disease theory, the Arabs adopted the ancient Greek teachings about the four elements and four bodily juices. According to the Arabs, each of the elements and liquids participates in the creation of four qualities: heat, cold, dryness and humidity, which determine the temperament of each person. It should be normal, in case of balance of all components, or “unbalanced”. When the balance is disturbed, the doctor’s task is to restore the original state.

In the treatment of internal diseases, primary attention was paid to establishing the correct regimen and only then drugs were used.

Having borrowed from the Syrians the idea of ​​​​using alchemy in the field of medicine, the Arabs played an important role in the formation and development of pharmacy and the creation of the pharmacopoeia. Pharmacies began to open in cities for preparation and sale. Alchemists of the medieval Arabic-speaking East invented a water bath and alembic, used filtration, and obtained nitric and hydrochloric acids, bleach and alcohol. Al-Razi was an outstanding philosopher, physician and chemist of the early Middle Ages. Al-Razi compiled the first encyclopedic work on medicine in Arabic literature, A Comprehensive Book on Medicine in 25 volumes. Describing each disease, he analyzed it from the perspective of Greek, Syrian, Indian, Persian and Arab authors, after which he outlined his observations and conclusions. Another encyclopedic work by Ar-Razi, “The Medical Book,” in 10 volumes, summarized the knowledge of that time in the field of medical theory, pathology, medicinal healing, dietetics, hygiene and cosmetics, surgery, toxicology and infectious diseases.

Among the numerous works of Ar-Razi, the small treatise “On Smallpox and Measles” is of particular value. In it, Ar-Razi clearly formulated the idea of ​​​​the contagiousness of these diseases and described their differential diagnosis, treatment, nutrition of the patient, measures to protect against infection, and skin care for the sick.

Islamic traditions do not allow dissection of the human body, but have made significant contributions to the development of certain areas of anatomy and surgery. This was especially evident in ophthalmology. While studying the structure of the animal eye, the famous Egyptian astronomer and physician Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain the refraction of rays in the media of the eye and give names to its parts, and put forward the idea of ​​vision correction using biconvex lenses.

Ammar ibn Ali al-Mausili also belongs to the galaxy of remarkable Arab ophthalmologists. The operation he developed to remove cataracts by suctioning the lens using a hollow needle he invented was a great success and was called the “Ammara operation.”

Ali ibn Isa made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of eye diseases. He wrote a book “Memorandum for Oculists”. The first part of the book is devoted to a description of the eye and its structure, the second - to eye diseases that are felt by the senses, the third - to eye diseases that are invisible to the patient.

Treatment of eye diseases was the area of ​​medicine in which the influence of the Arab school was felt in Western Europe until the 17th century.

The outstanding achievements of the Arabs in the field of anatomy include the description of the pulmonary circulation.

Surgery in the medieval Arabic-speaking world was more of a craft because Islam prohibited autopsies of corpses.

Al-Zahrawi is considered the most outstanding surgeon of the medieval Arabic-speaking world. Al-Zahrawi operated brilliantly. His priorities include: the use of catgut in abdominal surgery and for subcutaneous sutures, suture with cast and two needles, the first use of the supine position in pelvic operations; he described what is now commonly called tuberculous bone disease and introduced cataract surgery into Western eye surgery.

Organization of hospital business received significant development in the caliphates. Initially, the establishment of hospitals was a secular matter. Hospitals founded by Muslims were of three types.

The first type included hospitals established by caliphs or famous Muslim figures and designed for a wide segment of the population. Οʜᴎ were financed by the state, had a staff of doctors and service personnel. Libraries and medical schools were created at hospitals. The training was theoretical and practical: students accompanied the teacher during his rounds in the hospital and visited sick people at home with him.

The second type of hospital was financed by famous doctors and religious figures and was small.

The third type of hospitals were military medical institutions. Οʜᴎ moved with the army and were located in tents, castles, and citadels. During military campaigns, along with male doctors, warriors were also accompanied by female doctors who cared for the wounded.

The high level of organization of medical practice in the medieval East is closely related to the development of hygiene and disease prevention. The ban on performing autopsies, on the one hand, limited research into the structure of the body and its functions, and on the other, directed the efforts of doctors to find other ways to preserve health and led to the development of rational hygienic measures. Many of them are enshrined in the Koran.

Medical education was carried out:

1 – self-education, 2 – training from your parents who are doctors, 3 – training from famous doctors, 4 – training in medical schools.

The history of medicine represents a huge field for researchers. But if we turn to a narrower topic, the role of healing in the history of Ancient Rus' is usually interpreted outside the historical and cultural context of the era and the cultural realities accompanying it. The study of Associate Professor of the Department of Social Sciences and Humanities of the Academy of Social Management, Candidate of Historical Sciences A.N. is intended to fill this gap. Bear. The author has long been engaged in issues of the history of natural science knowledge. The full title of his book, published in St. Petersburg in 2017, is: “Disease and the sick in Ancient Rus': from the “ore thrower” to the “doctor.” A look from the perspective of historical anthropology."

“The history of ancient Russian healing,” writes A.N. Bear, - over time, has become overgrown with a large number of myths and misconceptions, wandering from book to book with enviable consistency.” Scientists study mainly written sources, without drawing on materials from archaeological excavations, etc. Ancient Russian burials almost never become a place for studying paleopathologies, namely, what the Russians were sick with and how they were treated.
The author of the book believes that questions about the history of medicine can be answered from the perspective of anthropology. To do this, he identified four main issues: 1) the etiology of the disease and its connection with the culture and mentality of medieval Russian society; 2) the role and position of the doctor; 3) attitude towards the patient and caring for him; 4) therapy as a reflection of the worldview of ancient Russian people.

A.N. Bear explored the motive of illness as God's punishment, in particular epidemics, information about which was gleaned from chroniclers, in the letters of clergy and orders of the prince and tsar. Courtyard doctors and palace doctors are considered. Death from disease overtook both the poor and the noble. The author notes that the grand dukes kept foreign doctors near them, which was explained by “fashion” and the fact that foreign methods of treatment seemed more progressive. The common people either did not receive treatment at all, relying on prayers, or used the services of healers. An entire chapter is devoted to Orthodox healing (theotherapy). Sacred objects in healing practice are considered: icons, relics of saints, Shimon's belt, pendants to icons, Christian amulets. Birch bark letters with spells against various diseases have survived to this day. The author mentions unusual means of treatment, in particular, oil. But the most common surgical method was... bloodletting, not amputation.

The study is written in accessible language and will undoubtedly be of interest to anyone interested in the history of everyday life and the history of medicine.